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Dearlove B, Tovanabutra S, Owen CL, Lewitus E, Li Y, Sanders-Buell E, Bose M, O’Sullivan AM, Kijak G, Miller S, Poltavee K, Lee J, Bonar L, Harbolick E, Ahani B, Pham P, Kibuuka H, Maganga L, Nitayaphan S, Sawe FK, Kim JH, Eller LA, Vasan S, Gramzinski R, Michael NL, Robb ML, Rolland M. Factors influencing estimates of HIV-1 infection timing using BEAST. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008537. [PMID: 33524022 PMCID: PMC7877758 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
While large datasets of HIV-1 sequences are increasingly being generated, many studies rely on a single gene or fragment of the genome and few comparative studies across genes have been done. We performed genome-based and gene-specific Bayesian phylogenetic analyses to investigate how certain factors impact estimates of the infection dates in an acute HIV-1 infection cohort, RV217. In this cohort, HIV-1 diagnosis corresponded to the first RNA positive test and occurred a median of four days after the last negative test, allowing us to compare timing estimates using BEAST to a narrow window of infection. We analyzed HIV-1 sequences sampled one week, one month and six months after HIV-1 diagnosis in 39 individuals. We found that shared diversity and temporal signal was limited in acute infection, and insufficient to allow timing inferences in the shortest HIV-1 genes, thus dated phylogenies were primarily analyzed for env, gag, pol and near full-length genomes. There was no one best-fitting model across participants and genes, though relaxed molecular clocks (73% of best-fitting models) and the Bayesian skyline (49%) tended to be favored. For infections with single founders, the infection date was estimated to be around one week pre-diagnosis for env (IQR: 3–9 days) and gag (IQR: 5–9 days), whilst the genome placed it at a median of 10 days (IQR: 4–19). Multiply-founded infections proved problematic to date. Our ability to compare timing inferences to precise estimates of HIV-1 infection (within a week) highlights that molecular dating methods can be applied to within-host datasets from early infection. Nonetheless, our results also suggest caution when using uniform clock and population models or short genes with limited information content. Molecular dating using phylogenetics allows us to estimate the date of an infection from time-stamped within-host sequences alone. There are large datasets of HIV-1 sequences, but genome and gene analyses are not often performed in parallel and rarely with the possibility to compare results against a known narrow window of infection. We showed that all but the longest genes are near-clonal in acute infection, with little information for dating purposes. For infections with single founders, we estimated the eclipse phase—the time between HIV-1 exposure and the first positive diagnostic test—to last between one and two weeks using env, gag, pol and near full-length genomes. This approach could be used to narrow the date of suspected infection in ongoing clinical trials for the prevention of HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany Dearlove
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sodsai Tovanabutra
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christopher L. Owen
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eric Lewitus
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yifan Li
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eric Sanders-Buell
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Meera Bose
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anne-Marie O’Sullivan
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gustavo Kijak
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shana Miller
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kultida Poltavee
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jenica Lee
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Lydia Bonar
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Harbolick
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Bahar Ahani
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Phuc Pham
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hannah Kibuuka
- Makerere University Walter Reed Project, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Lucas Maganga
- National Institute for Medical Research-Mbeya Medical Research Centre, Mbeya, Tanzania
| | | | - Fred K. Sawe
- Kenya Medical Research Institute/U.S. Army Medical Research Directorate-Africa/Kenya-Henry Jackson Foundation MRI, Kericho, Kenya
| | | | - Leigh Anne Eller
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sandhya Vasan
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert Gramzinski
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Nelson L. Michael
- Center for Infectious Diseases Research, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Merlin L. Robb
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Morgane Rolland
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Rolland M, Tovanabutra S, Dearlove B, Li Y, Owen CL, Lewitus E, Sanders-Buell E, Bose M, O’Sullivan A, Rossenkhan R, Labuschagne JPL, Edlefsen PT, Reeves DB, Kijak G, Miller S, Poltavee K, Lee J, Bonar L, Harbolick E, Ahani B, Pham P, Kibuuka H, Maganga L, Nitayaphan S, Sawe FK, Eller LA, Gramzinski R, Kim JH, Michael NL, Robb ML. Molecular dating and viral load growth rates suggested that the eclipse phase lasted about a week in HIV-1 infected adults in East Africa and Thailand. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008179. [PMID: 32027734 PMCID: PMC7004303 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Most HIV-1 infected individuals do not know their infection dates. Precise infection timing is crucial information for studies that document transmission networks or drug levels at infection. To improve infection timing, we used the prospective RV217 cohort where the window when plasma viremia becomes detectable is narrow: the last negative visit occurred a median of four days before the first detectable HIV-1 viremia with an RNA test, referred below as diagnosis. We sequenced 1,280 HIV-1 genomes from 39 participants at a median of 4, 32 and 170 days post-diagnosis. HIV-1 infections were dated by using sequence-based methods and a viral load regression method. Bayesian coalescent and viral load regression estimated that infections occurred a median of 6 days prior to diagnosis (IQR: 9–3 and 11–4 days prior, respectively). Poisson-Fitter, which analyzes the distribution of hamming distances among sequences, estimated a median of 7 days prior to diagnosis (IQR: 15–4 days) based on sequences sampled 4 days post-diagnosis, but it did not yield plausible results using sequences sampled at 32 days. Fourteen participants reported a high-risk exposure event at a median of 8 days prior to diagnosis (IQR: 12 to 6 days prior). These different methods concurred that HIV-1 infection occurred about a week before detectable viremia, corresponding to 20 days (IQR: 34–15 days) before peak viral load. Together, our methods comparison helps define a framework for future dating studies in early HIV-1 infection. HIV-1 infected individuals rarely know when they became infected but knowing when an infection occurred provides critical information regarding HIV-1 pathogenesis and epidemiology. Using a unique cohort in which infection was known to have occurred in a narrow interval, we investigated methods to estimate the timing of infections. Several methods suggested that HIV-1 infection typically occurs a median of one week before the infection can be detected by HIV-1 RNA testing. Going forward, we provide a strategy that can be used to elucidate the origin of an acute/early infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgane Rolland
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sodsai Tovanabutra
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Bethany Dearlove
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Yifan Li
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Christopher L. Owen
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Eric Lewitus
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Eric Sanders-Buell
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Meera Bose
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - AnneMarie O’Sullivan
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Raabya Rossenkhan
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | | | - Paul T. Edlefsen
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Daniel B. Reeves
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Gustavo Kijak
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Shana Miller
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Kultida Poltavee
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Jenica Lee
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Lydia Bonar
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Harbolick
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Bahar Ahani
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Phuc Pham
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Hannah Kibuuka
- Makerere University Walter Reed Project, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Lucas Maganga
- National Institute for Medical Research-Mbeya Medical Research Center, Mbeya, Tanzania
| | | | - Fred K. Sawe
- Kenya Medical Research Institute/U.S. Army Medical Research Directorate-Africa/Kenya-Henry Jackson Foundation MRI, Kericho, Kenya
| | - Leigh Anne Eller
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Robert Gramzinski
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
| | | | - Nelson L. Michael
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Merlin L. Robb
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States of America
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Rolland M, Tovanabutra S, Sanders-Buell E, Bose M, Sullivan AMO, Howell S, Poltavee K, Lee J, Ibitamuno G, Muhammad S, Ahani B, Lepore S, Harbolick E, Oropeza C, Patterson J, Bates A, Lazzaro M, Kijak G, Dommaraju K, Herr C, Eller LA, Nitayaphan S, Rono K, Maganga L, Sekiziyivu A, Michael N, Kim J, Robb M. No Selection for Env with Shorter Variable Loops in Acute HIV-1 Infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2014. [DOI: 10.1089/aid.2014.5396.abstract] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Meera Bose
- MHRP;HJF, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | | | | | | | - Jenica Lee
- MHRP;HJF, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Adam Bates
- MHRP;HJF, Silver Spring, MD, United States
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Kijak GH, Sanders-Buell E, Chenine AL, Eller M, Goonetilleke N, Thomas R, Leviyang S, Harbolick E, Bose M, Pham P, Oropeza C, Poltavee K, O'Sullivan AM, Merbah M, Costanzo M, Li H, Fischer W, Gao F, Eller LA, O'Connell RJ, Sinei S, Maganga L, Kibuuka H, Nitayaphan S, Rolland M, Korber B, McCutchan F, Shaw G, Michael N, Robb M, Tovanabutra S, Kim J. Cryptic Multiple HIV-1 Infection Revealed by Early, Frequent, and Deep Sampling during Acute Infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2014. [DOI: 10.1089/aid.2014.5102a.abstract] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Hernan Kijak
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Eric Sanders-Buell
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Agnes-Laurance Chenine
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Michael Eller
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Nilu Goonetilleke
- School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Rasmi Thomas
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Sivan Leviyang
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Elizabeth Harbolick
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Meera Bose
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Phuc Pham
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Celina Oropeza
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Kultida Poltavee
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Anne Marie O'Sullivan
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Melanie Merbah
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Margaret Costanzo
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Hui Li
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Will Fischer
- Theoretical Biology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United States
| | - Feng Gao
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Leigh Anne Eller
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | | | | | - Lucas Maganga
- Mbeya Medical Research Programme, Mbeya, Tanzania, United Republic of
| | - Hannah Kibuuka
- Makerere University-Walter Reed Project, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Morgane Rolland
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Bette Korber
- Theoretical Biology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United States
| | | | - George Shaw
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Nelson Michael
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Merlin Robb
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Sodsai Tovanabutra
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP)/ Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Jerome Kim
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program (MHRP), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
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