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Gao K, Zha F, Rao J, Chen B. Nonenzymatic glycation as a tunable technique to modify plant proteins: A comprehensive review on reaction process, mechanism, conjugate structure, and functionality. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2024; 23:e13269. [PMID: 38284590 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Plant proteins are expected to become a major protein source to replace currently used animal-derived proteins in the coming years. However, there are always challenges when using these proteins due to their low water solubility induced by the high molecular weight storage proteins. One approach to address this challenge is to modify proteins through Maillard glycation, which involves the reaction between proteins and carbohydrates. In this review, we discuss various chemical methods currently available for determining the indicators of the Maillard reaction in the early stage, including the graft degree of glycation and the available lysine or sugar, which are involved in the very beginning of the reaction. We also provide a detailed description of the most popular methods for determining graft sites and assessing different plant protein structures and functionalities upon non-enzymatic glycation. This review offers valuable insights for researchers and food scientists in order to develop plant-based protein ingredients with improved functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Gao
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Fengchao Zha
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Jiajia Rao
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Bingcan Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
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2
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Han P, Zhang Q, Wang X, Zhou P, Dong S, Zha F, Zeng M. Formation of advanced glycation end products in sturgeon patties affected by pan-fried and deep-fried conditions. Food Res Int 2022; 162:112105. [PMID: 36461405 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This study compared the effects of pan-fried with low (LPF), high (HPF) amounts of oil and deep-fried (DF) on the profiles of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in sturgeon patties. The surface color of the pan-fried patties, regardless of the amounts of oil used, visually presented more brown than deep-fried ones with higher internal temperature at the frying course of 3-9 min. Compared to LPF and HPF, DF significantly accelerated the furosine development for 6-9 min of frying, dynamically increased the accumulation of CML (Nε-carboxymethyl-lysine) and CEL (Nε-carboxyethyl-lysine) for up to 9 min of frying, and the level of CML in DF than LPF, HPF for 9 min of frying were increased by 209.6 % and 149.9 %, respectively. The oil level employed for pan-fried insignificantly influenced the formation of furosine and CML in patties. The principal component analysis further confirmed that DF patties had a greater influence on the formation of AGEs. The AGEs formation was positively associated with the temperature and amino groups, while remarkably negative correlation with moisture content. Therefore, pan-fried within 6 min of frying was recommended for the domestic cooking of sturgeon patties based on the potential formation of AGEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Han
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Xueyang Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Pengcheng Zhou
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Shiyuan Dong
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China.
| | - Fengchao Zha
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China.
| | - Mingyong Zeng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
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Ren Y, Mao Z, Zhang Q, Dong S, Zha F, Chen B. Formation of advanced glycation end‐products in glycation of silver carp myofibrillar protein with glucose: Relationship with its chemical indicators. Int J Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.16136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Ren
- College of Food Science and Engineering Ocean University of China 266003 Qingdao Shandong China
| | - Zhenjie Mao
- College of Food Science and Engineering Ocean University of China 266003 Qingdao Shandong China
| | - Qi Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering Ocean University of China 266003 Qingdao Shandong China
| | - Shiyuan Dong
- College of Food Science and Engineering Ocean University of China 266003 Qingdao Shandong China
| | - Fengchao Zha
- College of Food Science and Engineering Ocean University of China 266003 Qingdao Shandong China
| | - Bojian Chen
- College of Food Science and Engineering Ocean University of China 266003 Qingdao Shandong China
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Wang K, Liu K, Zha F, Wang H, Gao R, Wang J, Li K, Xu X, Zhao Y. Preparation and characterization of chondroitin sulfate from large hybrid sturgeon cartilage by hot-pressure and its effects on acceleration of wound healing. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 209:1685-1694. [PMID: 35461870 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.04.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, a combination of hot-pressure, enzymatic hydrolysis and membrane separation process is used for efficiently and environmentally friendly extraction of chondroitin sulfate (CS) from large hybrid sturgeon cartilage, namely, HPCS. The recovery and yield of CS were 93.68% and 36.47% under the optimized conditions. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) indicated that the HPCS was composed of monosulfated disaccharides in position 6 and 4 of the N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (58.38% and 27.34%, respectively) and nonsulfated disaccharide (14.29%), which was similar to the composition of CS extracted by dilute alkali-enzymatic hydrolysis-chemical precipitation from large hybrid sturgeon cartilage (SCS). The wound healing results indicated that HPCS could promote cell migration and proliferation, alleviate inflammation and facilitate angiogenesis, which results in its excellent wound treatment activity. These results provide theoretical and practical significance for the production and application of chondroitin sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangyu Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Preservation Technology of Marine Foods, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Kang Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Preservation Technology of Marine Foods, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Fengchao Zha
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Preservation Technology of Marine Foods, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Haiyan Wang
- Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Preservation Technology of Marine Foods, Qingdao 266003, China; Hisense (Shandong) Refrigerator Co., Ltd., 266100 Qingdao, China
| | - Ruichang Gao
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Jinlin Wang
- Quzhou Sturgeon Aquatic Food Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd., Quzhou 324002, China
| | - Keyi Li
- Quzhou Sturgeon Aquatic Food Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd., Quzhou 324002, China
| | - Xinxing Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Preservation Technology of Marine Foods, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Yuanhui Zhao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Preservation Technology of Marine Foods, Qingdao 266003, China.
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Gao K, Zha F, Yang Z, Rao J, Chen B. Structure characteristics and functionality of water-soluble fraction from high-intensity ultrasound treated pea protein isolate. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Zha F, Yang Z, Rao J, Chen B. Correction to Gum Arabic-Mediated Synthesis of Glyco-pea Protein Hydrolysate via Maillard Reaction Improves Solubility, Flavor Profile, and Functionality of Plant Protein. J Agric Food Chem 2021; 69:14340. [PMID: 34793145 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c07181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
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Zha F, Gao K, Rao J, Chen B. Maillard-driven chemistry to tune the functionality of pea protein: Structure characterization, site-specificity, and aromatic profile. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Gu Z, Jiang H, Zha F, Manthey F, Rao J, Chen B. Toward a comprehensive understanding of ultracentrifugal milling on the physicochemical properties and aromatic profile of yellow pea flour. Food Chem 2021; 345:128760. [PMID: 33302101 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Yellow pea (Pisum sativum L., YP) grain is generally milled into flour for further processing or direct consumption. However, the comprehensive relationship between milling configurations and YP flour properties remains unclear. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of configurations (screen aperture size and rotor speed) of ultracentrifugal mill on the physicochemical properties and aromatic profiles of YP flours. Starch damage, morphology, particle size distribution, pasting, thermal property, and aromatic profiles of YP flours were studied. Results show that starch damage increased significantly as the screen aperture size decreased. The YP flour produced with a 500 µm aperture screen had the most stable pasting and thermal properties. With untargeted metabolomic approaches, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol could potentially be applied as an aroma maker to distinguish if an excessive milling or inappropriate configurations of ultracentrifugal mill are applied. This work has furnished fundamentals for the milling and application of YP flour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixuan Gu
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Haiyang Jiang
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Fengchao Zha
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Frank Manthey
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Jiajia Rao
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Bingcan Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA.
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Zha F, Rao J, Chen B. Modification of pulse proteins for improved functionality and flavor profile: A comprehensive review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:3036-3060. [PMID: 33798275 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Consumers' preference to have a healthy eating pattern has led to an increasing demand for more nutrient-dense and healthier plant-based foods. Pulse proteins are exceptional quality ingredients with potential nutritional benefits, and might act as health-promoting agents for addressing the new-generation foods. However, the utilization of pulse protein in foods has been hampered by its relatively poor functionality and unpleasant flavor. Protein structure modification has been proved to be a useful means to improve the functionality and flavor profile of pulse protein. This paper begins with a brief introduction of hierarchical structure of pulse protein materials to better understand the structure characteristics. A comprehensive review is presented on the current techniques including chemical and enzymatic modifications and molecular breeding on pulse protein structure and functionality/flavor. The mechanism and the limitations and the toxicological concerns of these approaches are discussed. We conclude that understanding protein structure-functionality relationship is extremely valuable in tailoring proteins for specific functional outcomes and expanding the availability of pulse proteins. Furthermore, selective protein modification is a valuable in-depth toolkit for generating novel protein constructs with preferable functional attributes and flavor profiles. Innovative structure modification with special focus on the molecular basis for the exquisite protein designs is a pillar of pulse protein access to the desired functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengchao Zha
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Jiajia Rao
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Bingcan Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
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Zha F, Yang Z, Rao J, Chen B. Conjugation of Pea Protein Isolate via Maillard-Driven Chemistry with Saccharide of Diverse Molecular Mass: Molecular Interactions Leading to Aggregation or Glycation. J Agric Food Chem 2020; 68:10157-10166. [PMID: 32820920 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Diverse saccharides are effectively grafted to pea protein isolate (PPI) through Maillard-driven chemistry. The development of conjugates (glyco-PPI) was validated by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and size exclusion chromatography-high performance liquid chromatography. The impact of covalent conjugation on color development, structural modification, solubility, thermal stability, and volatiles of glycoprotein was examined. The protein solubility was improved, while its thermal stability seemed to be negatively influenced. The principle proposed involves Maillard-driven generation of the conjugates, which enhanced the surface hydrophilicity and unfolding of protein architecture of glyco-PPI. Additionally, both molecular mass and the grafted number of saccharides played a vital role in determining the solubility and thermal stability of glyco-PPI. Protein tends to denature at reaction conditions of 80 °C and pH 10.0, and its cross-linkage occurred in the aqueous system. The two potential routes of molecular interactions between PPI and saccharides were denaturation and glycation or self-cross-linkage. Flavor profile alteration of glycoprotein before and after conjugation was depicted, and relevant off-odors were quantified via headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. These outcomes could furnish valuable in-depth information for dictating functionalities of plant-based protein for food application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengchao Zha
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Zhongyu Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Jiajia Rao
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Bingcan Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
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Zhang Q, Zha F, Dong S, Zhao Y. Formation of Glycated Products and Quality Attributes of Shrimp Patties Affected by Different Cooking Conditions. Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10498850.2019.1707927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- College of Food Science and engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Fengchao Zha
- College of Food Science and engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Shiyuan Dong
- College of Food Science and engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Yuanhui Zhao
- College of Food Science and engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, China
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Lan Y, Zha F, Peckrul A, Hanson B, Johnson B, Rao J, Chen B. Genotype x Environmental Effects on Yielding Ability and Seed Chemical Composition of Industrial Hemp (
Cannabis sativa
L.) Varieties Grown in North Dakota, USA. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/aocs.12291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Lan
- Department of Plant SciencesNorth Dakota State University, Loftsgard Hall 1661365 Bolley Drive Fargo ND 58108 USA
| | - Fengchao Zha
- Department of Plant SciencesNorth Dakota State University, Loftsgard Hall 1661365 Bolley Drive Fargo ND 58108 USA
| | - Allen Peckrul
- Department of Plant SciencesNorth Dakota State University, Loftsgard Hall 1661365 Bolley Drive Fargo ND 58108 USA
| | - Bryan Hanson
- Langdon Research Extension CenterNorth Dakota State University, 107th Ave NE Langdon ND 58249 USA
| | - Burton Johnson
- Department of Plant SciencesNorth Dakota State University, Loftsgard Hall 1661365 Bolley Drive Fargo ND 58108 USA
| | - Jiajia Rao
- Department of Plant SciencesNorth Dakota State University, Loftsgard Hall 1661365 Bolley Drive Fargo ND 58108 USA
| | - Bingcan Chen
- Department of Plant SciencesNorth Dakota State University, Loftsgard Hall 1661365 Bolley Drive Fargo ND 58108 USA
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Zha F, Yang Z, Rao J, Chen B. Gum Arabic-Mediated Synthesis of Glyco-pea Protein Hydrolysate via Maillard Reaction Improves Solubility, Flavor Profile, and Functionality of Plant Protein. J Agric Food Chem 2019; 67:10195-10206. [PMID: 31436982 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b04099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Pea protein hydrolysate (PPH) is successfully conjugated with gum arabic (GA) through Maillard-driven chemistry. The effect of cross-linking conjugation on the structure, solubility, volatile substances, emulsification, and antioxidative activity of glyco-PPH is investigated, and found to improve all properties. The formation of glyco-PPH is confirmed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Size exclusion chromatography-multi angle light scattering (SEC-MALS) unveils that the maximum molecular mass of glyco-PPH occurs after 1 day of conjugation and approximately 1.2 mol of gum arabic conjugates on one mole of PPH. Headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) reveals the odor changes of glycoprotein before and after cross-linking. We have also prepared oil-in-water emulsions using glyco-PPH, which have enhanced physical stability against pH changes and chemical stability against lipid oxidation. The mechanism proposed involves Maillard-driven synthesis of the cross-linked PPH-GA conjugates, which increase the surface hydrophilicity and steric hindrance of glyco-PPH. These findings could provide a rational foundation for tailoring the physicochemical properties and functionalities of plant-based protein, which are attractive for food and functional materials applications.
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Zha F, Dong S, Rao J, Chen B. The structural modification of pea protein concentrate with gum Arabic by controlled Maillard reaction enhances its functional properties and flavor attributes. Food Hydrocoll 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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16
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Semedo Tavares WP, Dong S, Jin W, Yang Y, Han K, Zha F, Zhao Y, Zeng M. Effect of different cooking conditions on the profiles of Maillard reaction products and nutrient composition of hairtail ( Thichiurus lepturus ) fillets. Food Res Int 2018; 103:390-397. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.10.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Zha F, Wei B, Chen S, Dong S, Zeng M, Liu Z. The Maillard reaction of a shrimp by-product protein hydrolysate: chemical changes and inhibiting effects of reactive oxygen species in human HepG2 cells. Food Funct 2015; 6:1919-27. [DOI: 10.1039/c5fo00296f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A shrimp by-product protein hydrolysate via the Maillard reaction could alleviate cellular damage, but result in higher HMF and loss of nutritional quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengchao Zha
- College of Food Science and engineering
- Ocean University of China
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Binbin Wei
- College of Food Science and engineering
- Ocean University of China
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Shengjun Chen
- Key laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing
- Ministry of Agriculture
- South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute
- CAFS
- Guangzhou
| | - Shiyuan Dong
- College of Food Science and engineering
- Ocean University of China
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Mingyong Zeng
- College of Food Science and engineering
- Ocean University of China
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Zunying Liu
- College of Food Science and engineering
- Ocean University of China
- Qingdao
- China
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