1
|
Sarikaya S, Gardea F, Auletta JT, Langrock A, Kim H, Mackie DM, Naraghi M. Fuel-Driven Redox Reactions in Electrolyte-Free Polymer Actuators for Soft Robotics. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2023; 15:31803-31811. [PMID: 37345639 PMCID: PMC10862377 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c04883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Polymers that undergo shape changes in response to external stimuli can serve as actuators and offer significant potential in a variety of technologies, including biomimetic artificial muscles and soft robotics. Current polymer artificial muscles possess major challenges for various applications as they often require extreme and non-practical actuation conditions. Thus, exploring actuators with new or underutilized stimuli may broaden the application of polymer-based artificial muscles. Here, we introduce an all-solid fuel-powered actuator that contracts and expands when exposed to H2 and O2 via redox reactions. This actuator demonstrates a fully reversible actuation magnitude of up to 3.8% and achieves a work capacity of 120 J/kg. Unlike traditional chemical actuators, our actuator eliminates the need for electrolytes, electrodes, and the application of external voltage. Moreover, it offers athermal actuation by avoiding the drawbacks of thermal actuators. Remarkably, the actuator maintains its actuated position under load when not stimulated, without consuming energy (i.e., catch state). These fuel-powered fiber actuators were embedded in a soft humanoid hand to demonstrate finger-bending motions. In terms of two main actuation metrics, stress-free contraction strain and blocking stress, the presented artificial muscle outperforms reported polymer redox actuators. The fuel-powered actuator developed in this work creates new avenues for the application of redox polymers in soft robotics and artificial muscles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sevketcan Sarikaya
- Materials
Science and Engineering Department, Texas
A&M University, College
Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Frank Gardea
- Army
Research Directorate, Army Research Laboratory South, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Jeffrey T. Auletta
- Army
Research Directorate, Army Research Laboratory, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, Adelphi, Maryland 20783, United States
| | - Alex Langrock
- Army
Research Directorate, Army Research Laboratory, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21005, United States
| | - Hyun Kim
- Army
Research Directorate, Army Research Laboratory, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, Adelphi, Maryland 20783, United States
- Advanced
Materials Division, Korea Research Institute
of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, South Korea
| | - David M. Mackie
- Army
Research Directorate, Army Research Laboratory, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, Adelphi, Maryland 20783, United States
| | - Mohammad Naraghi
- Materials
Science and Engineering Department, Texas
A&M University, College
Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department
of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M
University, College
Station, Texas 77843, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sliozberg YR, Gardea F, Zhou Q, Sukhishvili SA. Impact of crosslinker on stereochemistry of a dynamic covalent polymer network: A molecular dynamics simulation. Chem Phys Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2022.139858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
3
|
Zhou Q, Sang Z, Rajagopalan KK, Sliozberg Y, Gardea F, Sukhishvili SA. Thermodynamics and Stereochemistry of Diels–Alder Polymer Networks: Role of Crosslinker Flexibility and Crosslinking Density. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qing Zhou
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Zhen Sang
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Kartik Kumar Rajagopalan
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Yelena Sliozberg
- Weapons and Materials Research Directorate, DEVCOM Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21005, United States
| | - Frank Gardea
- Weapons and Materials Research Directorate, DEVCOM Army Research Laboratory South, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Svetlana A. Sukhishvili
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cole DP, Gardea F, Henry TC, Seppala JE, Garboczi EJ, Migler KD, Shumeyko CM, Westrich JR, Orski SV, Gair JL. AMB2018-03: Benchmark Physical Property Measurements for Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Polycarbonate. Integr Mater Manuf Innov 2020; 9:10.1007/s40192-020-00188-y. [PMID: 38486805 PMCID: PMC10938461 DOI: 10.1007/s40192-020-00188-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Material extrusion (MatEx) is finding increasing applications in additive manufacturing of thermoplastics due to the ease of use and the ability to process disparate polymers. Since part strength is anisotropic and frequently deviates negatively with respect to parts produced by injection molding, an urgent challenge is to predict final properties of parts made through this method. A nascent effort is underway to develop theoretical and computational models of MatEx part properties, but these efforts require comprehensive experimental data for guidance and validation. As part of the AM-Bench framework, we provide here a thorough set of measurements on a model system: polycarbonate printed in a simple rectangular shape. For the precursor material (as-received filament), we perform rheology, gel permeation chromatography, and dynamical mechanical analysis, to ascertain critical material parameters such as molar mass distribution, glass transition, and shear thinning. Following processing, we conduct X-ray computed tomography, scanning electron microscopy, depth sensing indentation, and atomic force microscopy modulus mapping. These measurements provide information related to pores, method of failure, and local modulus variations. Finally, we conduct tensile testing to assess strength and degree of anisotropy of mechanical properties. We find several effects that lead to degradation of tensile properties including the presence of pore networks, poor interfacial bonding, variations in interfacial mechanical behavior between rasters, and variable interaction of the neighboring builds within the melt state. The results provide insight into the processing-structure-property relationships and should serve as benchmarks for the development of mechanical models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P. Cole
- Vehicle Technology Directorate, CCDC US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
| | - Frank Gardea
- Vehicle Technology Directorate, CCDC US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
| | - Todd C. Henry
- Vehicle Technology Directorate, CCDC US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan E. Seppala
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Edward J. Garboczi
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Kalman D. Migler
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Christopher M. Shumeyko
- Vehicle Technology Directorate, CCDC US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey R. Westrich
- Vehicle Technology Directorate, CCDC US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
| | - Sara V. Orski
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey L. Gair
- Vehicle Technology Directorate, CCDC US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
Soft robotics is an emerging field enabled by advances in the development of soft materials with properties commensurate to their biological counterparts, for the purpose of reproducing locomotion and other distinctive capabilities of active biological organisms. The development of soft actuators is fundamental to the advancement of soft robots and bio-inspired machines. Among the different material systems incorporated in the fabrication of soft devices, ionic hydrogel-elastomer hybrids have recently attracted vast attention due to their favorable characteristics, including their analogy with human skin. Here, we demonstrate that this hybrid material system can be 3D printed as a soft dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA) with a unimorph configuration that is capable of generating high bending motion in response to an applied electrical stimulus. We characterized the device actuation performance via applied (i) ramp-up electrical input, (ii) cyclic electrical loading, and (iii) payload masses. A maximum vertical tip displacement of 9.78 ± 2.52 mm at 5.44 kV was achieved from the tested 3D printed DEAs. Furthermore, the nonlinear actuation behavior of the unimorph DEA was successfully modeled using analytical energetic formulation and a finite element method (FEM).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ghazaleh Haghiashtiani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Ed Habtour
- U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005, USA
- Department of Applied Mechanics, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- The Netherlands Defence Academy, Den Helder, Netherlands
| | - Sung-Hyun Park
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Frank Gardea
- U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005, USA
| | - Michael C. McAlpine
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Corresponding author
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ashraf T, Ranaiefar M, Khatri S, Kavosi J, Gardea F, Glaz B, Naraghi M. Carbon nanotubes within polymer matrix can synergistically enhance mechanical energy dissipation. Nanotechnology 2018; 29:115704. [PMID: 29334482 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aaa7e6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Safe operation and health of structures relies on their ability to effectively dissipate undesired vibrations, which could otherwise significantly reduce the life-time of a structure due to fatigue loads or large deformations. To address this issue, nanoscale fillers, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), have been utilized to dissipate mechanical energy in polymer-based nanocomposites through filler-matrix interfacial friction by benefitting from their large interface area with the matrix. In this manuscript, for the first time, we experimentally investigate the effect of CNT alignment with respect to reach other and their orientation with respect to the loading direction on vibrational damping in nanocomposites. The matrix was polystyrene (PS). A new technique was developed to fabricate PS-CNT nanocomposites which allows for controlling the angle of CNTs with respect to the far-field loading direction (misalignment angle). Samples were subjected to dynamic mechanical analysis, and the damping of the samples were measured as the ratio of the loss to storage moduli versus CNT misalignment angle. Our results defied a notion that randomly oriented CNT nanocomposites can be approximated as a combination of matrix-CNT representative volume elements with randomly aligned CNTs. Instead, our results points to major contributions of stress concentration induced by each CNT in the matrix in proximity of other CNTs on vibrational damping. The stress fields around CNTs in PS-CNT nanocomposites were studied via finite element analysis. Our findings provide significant new insights not only on vibrational damping nanocomposites, but also on their failure modes and toughness, in relation to interface phenomena.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taimoor Ashraf
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, 3409 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3409, United States of America
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gardea F, Glaz B, Riddick J, Lagoudas DC, Naraghi M. Identification of energy dissipation mechanisms in CNT-reinforced nanocomposites. Nanotechnology 2016; 27:105707. [PMID: 26866611 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/10/105707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we present our recent findings on the mechanisms of energy dissipation in polymer-based nanocomposites obtained through experimental investigations. The matrix of the nanocomposite was polystyrene (PS) which was reinforced with carbon nanotubes (CNTs). To study the mechanical strain energy dissipation of nanocomposites, we measured the ratio of loss to storage modulus for different CNT concentrations and alignments. CNT alignment was achieved via hot-drawing of PS-CNT. In addition, CNT agglomeration was studied via a combination of SEM imaging and Raman scanning. We found that at sufficiently low strains, energy dissipation in composites with high CNT alignment is not a function of applied strain, as no interfacial slip occurs between the CNTs and PS. However, below the interfacial slip strain threshold, damping scales monotonically with CNT content, which indicates the prevalence of CNT-CNT friction dissipation mechanisms within agglomerates. At higher strains, interfacial slip also contributes to energy dissipation. However, the increase in damping with strain, especially when CNT agglomerates are present, does not scale linearly with the effective interface area between CNTs and PS, suggesting a significant contribution of friction between CNTs within agglomerates to energy dissipation at large strains. In addition, for the first time, a comparison between the energy dissipation in randomly oriented and aligned CNT composites was made. It is inferred that matrix plasticity and tearing caused by misorientation of CNTs with the loading direction is a major cause of energy dissipation. The results of our research can be used to design composites with high energy dissipation capability, especially for applications where dynamic loading may compromise structural stability and functionality, such as rotary wing structures and antennas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frank Gardea
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, 3409 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-3409, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gardea F, Glaz B, Riddick J, Lagoudas DC, Naraghi M. Energy dissipation due to interfacial slip in nanocomposites reinforced with aligned carbon nanotubes. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2015; 7:9725-9735. [PMID: 25905718 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b01459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Interfacial slip mechanisms of strain energy dissipation and vibration damping of highly aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforced polymer composites were studied through experimentation and complementary micromechanics modeling. Experimentally, we have developed CNT-polystyrene (PS) composites with a high degree of CNT alignment via a combination of twin-screw extrusion and hot-drawing. The aligned nanocomposites enabled a focused study of the interfacial slip mechanics associated with shear stress concentrations along the CNT-PS interface induced by the elastic mismatch between the filler and matrix. The variation of storage and loss modulus suggests the initiation of the interfacial slip occurs at axial strains as low as 0.028%, primarily due to shear stress concentration along the CNT-PS interface. Through micromechanics modeling and by matching the model with the experimental results at the onset of slip, the interfacial shear strength was evaluated. The model was then used to provide additional insight into the experimental observations by showing that the nonlinear variation of damping with dynamic strain can be attributed to slip-stick behavior. The dependence of the interfacial load-transfer reversibility on the dynamic strain history and characteristic time scale was experimentally investigated to demonstrate the relative contribution of van der Waals (vdW) interactions, mechanical interlocking, and covalent bonding to shear interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Bryan Glaz
- ‡Vehicle Technology Directorate, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21005-5066, United States
| | - Jaret Riddick
- ‡Vehicle Technology Directorate, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21005-5066, United States
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gardea F, Garcia JM, Boday DJ, Bajjuri KM, Naraghi M, Hedrick JL. Hybrid Poly(aryl ether sulfone amide)s for Advanced Thermoplastic Composites. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201400267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frank Gardea
- Texas A&M University; Department of Aerospace Engineering; 3141 TAMU College Station TX 77843 USA
| | | | | | - Krishna M. Bajjuri
- IBM Almaden Research Center; 650 Harry Rd. San Jose CA 95120 USA
- Sutro Biopharma; 310 Utah Avenue Suite 150 South San Francisco CA 94080 USA
| | - Mohammad Naraghi
- Texas A&M University; Department of Aerospace Engineering; 3141 TAMU College Station TX 77843 USA
| | - James L. Hedrick
- IBM Almaden Research Center; 650 Harry Rd. San Jose CA 95120 USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
The thermal transport process in carbon nanofiber (CNF)/epoxy composites is addressed through combined micromechanics and finite element modeling, guided by experiments. The heat exchange between CNF constituents and matrix is studied by explicitly accounting for interface thermal resistance between the CNFs and the epoxy matrix. The effects of nanofiber orientation and discontinuity on heat flow and thermal conductivity of nanocomposites are investigated through simulation of the laser flash experiment technique and Fourier's model of heat conduction. Our results indicate that when continuous CNFs are misoriented with respect to the average temperature gradient, the presence of interfacial resistance does not affect the thermal conductivity of the nanocomposites, as most of the heat flow will be through CNFs; however, interface thermal resistance can significantly alter the patterns of heat flow within the nanocomposite. It was found that very high interface resistance leads to heat entrapment at the interface near to the heat source, which can promote interface thermal degradation. The magnitude of heat entrapment, quantified via the peak transient temperature rise at the interface, in the case of high thermal resistance interfaces becomes an order of magnitude more intense as compared to the case of low thermal resistance interfaces. Moreover, high interface thermal resistance in the case of discontinuous fibers leads to a nearly complete thermal isolation of the fibers from the matrix, which will marginalize the contribution of the CNF thermal conductivity to the heat transfer in the composite.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Gardea
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University , 3409 TAMU College Station, Texas 77843-3409, United States
| | | | | |
Collapse
|