1
|
Drafi F, Bauerova K, Chrastina M, Taghdisiesfejír M, Rocha J, Direito R, Figueira ME, Sepodes B, Ponist S. Rhodiola rosea L. Extract, a Known Adaptogen, Evaluated in Experimental Arthritis. Molecules 2023; 28:5053. [PMID: 37446715 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28135053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhodiola rosea L. extract (RSE) is mostly known for its adaptogen properties, but not for its antiarthritic activities, therefore monotherapy and combination with low-dose methotrexate (MTX) was studied. The collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model was used to measure the functional score, and the change in hind paw volume (HPV). Both parameters had significant antiarthritic effects. Based on these preliminary results, an adjuvant arthritis (AA) model was further applied to assess another parameters. The experiment included these animal groups: healthy controls, untreated AA, AA administered with RSE (150 mg/kg b.w. daily, p.o.), AA administered by MTX (0.3 mg/kg b.w. twice a week, p.o.), and AA treated with the combination of RSE+MTX. The combination of RSE+MTX significantly reduced the HPV and increased the body weight. The combination significantly decreased HPV when compared to MTX monotherapy. The plasmatic levels of inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-17A, MMP-9 and CRP) were significantly decreased by MTX+RSE treatment. The RSE monotherapy didn't influence any of the inflammatory parameters studied. In CIA, the RSE monotherapy significantly decreased the arthritic parameters studied. In summary, the combination of RSE and sub-therapeutic MTX was significantly effective in AA by improving inflammatory and arthritic parameters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frantisek Drafi
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Centre of Experimental Medicine SAS, 841 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Katarina Bauerova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Centre of Experimental Medicine SAS, 841 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Martin Chrastina
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Centre of Experimental Medicine SAS, 841 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, Malá Hora 10701/4A, 036 01 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Mohsen Taghdisiesfejír
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Centre of Experimental Medicine SAS, 841 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - João Rocha
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
- Laboratory of Systems Integration Pharmacology, Clinical and Regulatory Science, Research Institute for Medicines of the University of Lisbon (iMED.ULisboa), Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rosa Direito
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
- Laboratory of Systems Integration Pharmacology, Clinical and Regulatory Science, Research Institute for Medicines of the University of Lisbon (iMED.ULisboa), Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maria Eduardo Figueira
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
- Laboratory of Systems Integration Pharmacology, Clinical and Regulatory Science, Research Institute for Medicines of the University of Lisbon (iMED.ULisboa), Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sepodes
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
- Laboratory of Systems Integration Pharmacology, Clinical and Regulatory Science, Research Institute for Medicines of the University of Lisbon (iMED.ULisboa), Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Silvester Ponist
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Centre of Experimental Medicine SAS, 841 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tsiklauri L, Drafi F, Poništ S, Slovák L, Chrastina M, Švík K, Kemoklidze Z, Kemertelidze E, Bauerová K. Study of anti-inflammatory activity of Fatsiphloginum™ (Fatsia japonica) and a new purified triterpene-rich extract of saponins (PS-551) in experimental model of arthritis. Physiol Res 2020; 68:S75-S85. [PMID: 31755293 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.934328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, two extracts from Fatsia japonica-Fatsiphloginum™ (extract of triterpene glycosides containing 45-50 % of fatsiosides (FS)) and purified triterpene-rich extract of saponins with code name PS-551 (PS) were administered in combination with methotrexate (MTX) and in monotherapy to rats suffering adjuvant arthritis (AA). The anti-inflammatory activities of extracts were evaluated as monotherapies in comparison with untreated AA. PS administered in higher dose showed on day 28 effective decrease of hind paw volume (HPV), decreased activity of gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) in joints, and also interleukin-17A was decreased significantly on day 14. The higher dose of PS was more effective than both doses of FS. Further, we evaluated the higher doses of PS and FS in combination with MTX. PS improved the effect of MTX in combination more effective than FS (HPV, body weight and activity of GGT in joint). However, FS was more effective in reducing the level of IL-17A on day 14 and activity of GGT in spleen than PS. In conclusion, our study showed that generally FS has higher anti-arthritic activity comparing to PS. Thus, the novel combination of Fatsiphloginum™ and methotrexate could be interesting for future clinical studies in patients suffering auto-immune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Tsiklauri
- Iovel Kutateladze Pharmacochemistry Institute, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia, Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Centre of Experimental Medicine, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bauerova K, Drafi F, Kuncirova V, Ponist S, Mihalova D, Babal P, Sykora T. Hyperbilirubinemia decreases physiological markers in adjuvant-induced arthritis. Physiol Res 2015; 64:S459-66. [PMID: 26681075 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.933202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is evidence that a higher serum level of bilirubin (BIL) may be a protective factor for autoimmune diseases. We examined the effect of BIL supplementation in adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) where oxidative stress, inflammation and inadequate immune response are present. Male Lewis rats were randomized into groups: CO - control, AIA - untreated adjuvant-induced arthritis, AIA-BIL - adjuvant-induced arthritis administrated BIL (200 mg/kg b.w. daily i.p. during 14 days). Change of hind paw volume in the AIA-BIL group in comparison to the AIA group was significantly decreased after BIL administration. In CO and AIA groups we found almost untraceable levels of BIL. In the AIA-BIL group hyperbilirubinemia was observed. BIL administration significantly decreased plasma levels of C-reactive protein and ceruloplasmin in the AIA-BIL group in comparison to the AIA group. The values of white and red blood cells, hemoglobin and hematocrit were significantly decreased in AIA-BIL after BIL supplementation. Organs like spleen and thymus had a lower weight in AIA-BIL than in AIA. Histological findings showed decreased or even absent damage in hind paw joint of AIA-BIL animals. We observed an immunomodulatory effect of BIL on AIA development, which may also have a novel pharmacological impact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Bauerova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kuncirova V, Ponist S, Mihalova D, Drafi F, Nosal R, Acquaviva A, Gardi C, Harmatha J, Hradkova I, Bauerova K. N-feruloylserotonin in preventive combination therapy with methotrexate reduced inflammation in adjuvant arthritis. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2014; 28:616-26. [DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Viera Kuncirova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Dubravska cesta 9 SK-841 04 Bratislava Slovak Republic
| | - Silvester Ponist
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Dubravska cesta 9 SK-841 04 Bratislava Slovak Republic
| | - Danica Mihalova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Dubravska cesta 9 SK-841 04 Bratislava Slovak Republic
| | - Frantisek Drafi
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Dubravska cesta 9 SK-841 04 Bratislava Slovak Republic
| | - Radomir Nosal
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Dubravska cesta 9 SK-841 04 Bratislava Slovak Republic
| | - Alessandra Acquaviva
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine; University of Siena; via A. Moro - Loc. S. Miniato I-53100 Siena Italy
| | - Concetta Gardi
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine; University of Siena; via A. Moro - Loc. S. Miniato I-53100 Siena Italy
| | - Juraj Harmatha
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry v.v.i.; AS CR; Flemingovo nam. 2 CZ - 166 10 Prague 6 Czech Republic
| | - Iveta Hradkova
- Department of Diary and Fat Technology; Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology; Institute of Chemical Technology; Technicka 5 CZ - 166 28 Prague Czech Republic
| | - Katarina Bauerova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Dubravska cesta 9 SK-841 04 Bratislava Slovak Republic
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bauerova K, Acquaviva A, Ponist S, Gardi C, Vecchio D, Drafi F, Arezzini B, Bezakova L, Kuncirova V, Mihalova D, Nosal R. Markers of inflammation and oxidative stress studied in adjuvant-induced arthritis in the rat on systemic and local level affected by pinosylvin and methotrexate and their combination. Autoimmunity 2014; 48:46-56. [PMID: 25046647 DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2014.939268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress (OS) is important in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and its experimental model--adjuvant arthritis (AA). Antioxidants are scarcely studied in autoimmunity, and future analyses are needed to assess its effects in ameliorating these diseases. Although there are studies about antioxidants effects on the course of RA, their role in combination therapy has not yet been studied in detail, especially on extra-articular manifestations of AA. During the 28-d administration of pinosylvin (PIN) in monotherapy and in combination with methotrexate (MTX) to AA rats, we evaluated the impact of the treatment on selected parameters. The experiment included: healthy controls, untreated AA, AA administered 50 mg/kg b.w. of PIN daily p.o., AA administered 0.4 mg/kg b.w. of MTX twice weekly p.o. and AA treated with a combination of PIN+MTX. AA was monitored using: hind paw volume, C-reactive protein, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and F2-isoprostanes in plasma, γ-glutamyltransferase activity in spleen, activity of lipoxygenase (LOX) in lung, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in liver and lung. PIN monotherapy significantly improved the activation of NF-κB in liver and lung, HO-1 expression and activity of LOX in the lung, MCP-1 levels in plasma (on 14th d) and plasmatic levels of F2-isoprostanes. An important contribution of PIN to MTX effect was the reduction of OS (an increase of HO-1 expression in lung and reduction of plasmatic TBARS) and decrease of LOX activity in the lung.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Bauerova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovak Republic
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Bauerova K, Ponist S, Kuncirova V, Drafi F, Mihalova D, Paulovicova E, Volpi N. Effect of Nonanimal High- and Low-Molecular-Mass Chondroitin Sulfates Produced by a Biotechnological Process in an Animal Model of Polyarthritis. Pharmacology 2014; 94:109-14. [DOI: 10.1159/000366285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
7
|
Bauerova K, Paulovicova E, Mihalova D, Drafi F, Strosova M, Mascia C, Biasi F, Rovensky J, Kucharska J, Gvozdjakova A, Ponist S. Combined methotrexate and coenzyme Q₁₀ therapy in adjuvant-induced arthritis evaluated using parameters of inflammation and oxidative stress. Acta Biochim Pol 2010. [DOI: 10.18388/abp.2010_2415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis is a common severe joint disease that affects all age groups, it is thus of great importance to develop new strategies for its treatment. The aim of the present study was to examine the combined effect of coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ₁₀) and methotrexate (MTX) on the progression of adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. Adjuvant arthritis (AA) was induced by a single intradermal injection of heat-inactivated Mycobacterium butyricum in incomplete Freund's adjuvant. The experiments included healthy animals, arthritic animals not treated, arthritic animals treated with CoQ₁₀, with methotrexate, and with a combination of CoQ₁₀ and methotrexate. The two latter groups received a daily oral dose of 20 mg/kg b.w. of CoQ₁₀, either alone or with methotrexate in an oral dose of 0.3 mg/kg b.w. twice a week. We found that CoQ₁₀ potentiated both the antiarthritic (decrease of hind paw volume) and the antioxidant effect of methotrexate on the level of oxidation of proteins (suppression of protein carbonyl level in plasma) as well as lipoperoxidation (suppression of levels of HNE-adducts and MDA-adducts to plasma proteins). The same effect was observed for plasmatic levels of CoQ₉ and IL-1α, and partially also for γ-glutamyltransferase activity assessed in joints and spleen. Moreover, the combination therapy improved the functionality of peripheral blood neutrophils in AA, with a balancing effect on the immunosuppression caused by MTX monotherapy. In summary, combined administration of CoQ₁₀ and methotrexate suppressed arthritic progression in rats more effectively than did MTX alone. This finding may help improve treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
Collapse
|
8
|
Bauerova K, Paulovicova E, Mihalova D, Drafi F, Strosova M, Mascia C, Biasi F, Rovensky J, Kucharska J, Gvozdjakova A, Ponist S. Combined methotrexate and coenzyme Q₁₀ therapy in adjuvant-induced arthritis evaluated using parameters of inflammation and oxidative stress. Acta Biochim Pol 2010; 57:347-354. [PMID: 20827446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2010] [Revised: 06/27/2010] [Accepted: 08/23/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis is a common severe joint disease that affects all age groups, it is thus of great importance to develop new strategies for its treatment. The aim of the present study was to examine the combined effect of coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ₁₀) and methotrexate (MTX) on the progression of adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. Adjuvant arthritis (AA) was induced by a single intradermal injection of heat-inactivated Mycobacterium butyricum in incomplete Freund's adjuvant. The experiments included healthy animals, arthritic animals not treated, arthritic animals treated with CoQ₁₀, with methotrexate, and with a combination of CoQ₁₀ and methotrexate. The two latter groups received a daily oral dose of 20 mg/kg b.w. of CoQ₁₀, either alone or with methotrexate in an oral dose of 0.3 mg/kg b.w. twice a week. We found that CoQ₁₀ potentiated both the antiarthritic (decrease of hind paw volume) and the antioxidant effect of methotrexate on the level of oxidation of proteins (suppression of protein carbonyl level in plasma) as well as lipoperoxidation (suppression of levels of HNE-adducts and MDA-adducts to plasma proteins). The same effect was observed for plasmatic levels of CoQ₉ and IL-1α, and partially also for γ-glutamyltransferase activity assessed in joints and spleen. Moreover, the combination therapy improved the functionality of peripheral blood neutrophils in AA, with a balancing effect on the immunosuppression caused by MTX monotherapy. In summary, combined administration of CoQ₁₀ and methotrexate suppressed arthritic progression in rats more effectively than did MTX alone. This finding may help improve treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Bauerova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Drafi F, Bauerova K, Valachova K, Ponist S, Mihalova D, Juranek I, Boldyrev A, Hrabarova E, Soltes L. Carnosine inhibits degradation of hyaluronan induced by free radical processes in vitro and improves the redox imbalance in adjuvant arthritis in vivo. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2010; 31 Suppl 2:96-100. [PMID: 21187837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/11/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE New ways of supplementary or combinatory therapy of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are of great importance. The aim is to find an additive to classical RA therapy with natural molecules without side effects possessing anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. In this study we investigated the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of the endogenous natural compound carnosine (CARN) in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we tested also the inhibitory properties of the drug methotrexate (MTX) on dynamic viscosity of hyaluronan (HA) solutions in the same manner. METHODS For in vitro testing of the inhibitory properties of CARN against degradation of HA solutions, we used the model of degradation of hyaluronan (HA) induced by free radicals. Both substances, CARN and MTX, were compared to glutathione (GSH). Rotational viscometry was used in evaluation of protective properties of compounds studied. The ability of CARN to restore the redox imbalance occurring in adjuvant arthritis (AA) of rats was also tested. We monitored the effect of CARN on hind paw volume (HPV) and on the levels of protein carbonyls, and thiobarbituric acid reacting substances (TBARS) in AA. RESULTS In the reaction system with the prevalence of •OH and/or peroxy-type radicals, CARN in 200 μmol/L concentration tested was shown to exert a protective action on HA degradation. MTX was less effective than CARN in preventing HA degradation. Its ability to protect HA against radical degradation was evident only at the highest concentration of 400 μmol/L. In AA, carnosine significantly reduced TBARS and protein carbonyls in plasma, and also decreased the HPV of animals most effectively on the day 14. CONCLUSIONS CARN proved its inhibitory properties against degradation of HA solutions at experimental conditions in vitro and showed its beneficial efficiency in vivo. Moreover, it reduced also HPV, the clinical marker of inflammation in AA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frantisek Drafi
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Valachova K, Hrabarova E, Drafi F, Juranek I, Bauerova K, Priesolova E, Nagy M, Soltes L. Ascorbate and Cu(II)-induced oxidative degradation of high-molar-mass hyaluronan. Pro- and antioxidative effects of some thiols. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2010; 31 Suppl 2:101-104. [PMID: 21187839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study presents the results of antioxidative and pro-oxidative efficacy of cysteamine and D-penicillamine (D-pen) in comparison to L-glutathione (L-GSH) on high-molar-mass hyaluronan (HA) degradation by cupric ions plus ascorbic acid. METHODS The substance tested was applied in the degradative system cupric ions plus ascorbate: (i) before the reaction onset or also (ii) 1 h after the reaction started. The results obtained were compared with that one recorded by using the degradative system in the absence of the substance tested. To monitor HA degradation kinetics, rotational viscometry was applied. Moreover, the standard ABTS and DPPH assays were used. RESULTS By using the method of rotational viscometry, D-pen showed dual effect: initial inhibitory effect on •OH radicals was changed to a pro-oxidative one in the dose and time dependent manner. Both L-GSH and cysteamine were recorded to be more effective scavengers of •OH radicals than D-pen. Cysteamine demonstrated to be an excellent scavenger also of alkoxyl- and peroxyl- type radicals. Based on IC50 values, gained by ABTS assay, it is evident that D-pen showed higher radical scavenging capacity compared to cysteamine. Similar results were observed also in DPPH assay, although in this assay less effective radical scavenging capacities of both substances tested were recorded. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the results obtained, it can be stated that D-pen can produce hydrogen peroxide or •OH radicals and can inhibit the production of these oxidants. Our results showed that both L-GSH and cysteamine are similarly effective in inhibiting of HA degradation. Moreover, cysteamine demonstrated to be a significant inhibitor of alkoxyl- and peroxyl- type radicals generated from C-type macroradical of HA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Valachova
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|