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Körner A, Strack F. Articulation posture influences pitch during singing imagery. Psychon Bull Rev 2023; 30:2187-2195. [PMID: 37221280 PMCID: PMC10728233 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02306-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Facial muscle activity contributes to singing and to articulation: in articulation, mouth shape can alter vowel identity; and in singing, facial movement correlates with pitch changes. Here, we examine whether mouth posture causally influences pitch during singing imagery. Based on perception-action theories and embodied cognition theories, we predict that mouth posture influences pitch judgments even when no overt utterances are produced. In two experiments (total N = 160), mouth posture was manipulated to resemble the articulation of either /i/ (as in English meet; retracted lips) or /o/ (as in French rose; protruded lips). Holding this mouth posture, participants were instructed to mentally "sing" given songs (which were all positive in valence) while listening with their inner ear and, afterwards, to assess the pitch of their mental chant. As predicted, compared to the o-posture, the i-posture led to higher pitch in mental singing. Thus, bodily states can shape experiential qualities, such as pitch, during imagery. This extends embodied music cognition and demonstrates a new link between language and music.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Körner
- Department of Psychology, University of Kassel, Holländische Straße 36-38, 34127, Kassel, Germany.
| | - Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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2
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Coles NA, March DS, Marmolejo-Ramos F, Larsen JT, Arinze NC, Ndukaihe ILG, Willis ML, Foroni F, Reggev N, Mokady A, Forscher PS, Hunter JF, Kaminski G, Yüvrük E, Kapucu A, Nagy T, Hajdu N, Tejada J, Freitag RMK, Zambrano D, Som B, Aczel B, Barzykowski K, Adamus S, Filip K, Yamada Y, Ikeda A, Eaves DL, Levitan CA, Leiweke S, Parzuchowski M, Butcher N, Pfuhl G, Basnight-Brown DM, Hinojosa JA, Montoro PR, Javela D LG, Vezirian K, IJzerman H, Trujillo N, Pressman SD, Gygax PM, Özdoğru AA, Ruiz-Fernandez S, Ellsworth PC, Gaertner L, Strack F, Marozzi M, Liuzza MT. A multi-lab test of the facial feedback hypothesis by the Many Smiles Collaboration. Nat Hum Behav 2022; 6:1731-1742. [PMID: 36266452 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-022-01458-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Following theories of emotional embodiment, the facial feedback hypothesis suggests that individuals' subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by their facial expressions. However, evidence for this hypothesis has been mixed. We thus formed a global adversarial collaboration and carried out a preregistered, multicentre study designed to specify and test the conditions that should most reliably produce facial feedback effects. Data from n = 3,878 participants spanning 19 countries indicated that a facial mimicry and voluntary facial action task could both amplify and initiate feelings of happiness. However, evidence of facial feedback effects was less conclusive when facial feedback was manipulated unobtrusively via a pen-in-mouth task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Coles
- Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.
| | - David S March
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Fernando Marmolejo-Ramos
- Center for Change and Complexity in Learning, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jeff T Larsen
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Nwadiogo C Arinze
- Department of Psychology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki, Nigeria
| | - Izuchukwu L G Ndukaihe
- Department of Psychology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki, Nigeria
| | - Megan L Willis
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Strathfield, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Francesco Foroni
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Strathfield, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Niv Reggev
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University, Be'er Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University, Be'er Sheva, Israel
| | - Aviv Mokady
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University, Be'er Sheva, Israel
| | | | | | | | - Elif Yüvrük
- Department of Psychology, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Aycan Kapucu
- Department of Psychology, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Tamás Nagy
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Nandor Hajdu
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Julian Tejada
- Department of Psychology, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Brazil
| | - Raquel M K Freitag
- Vernacular Languages Department, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Brazil
| | | | - Bidisha Som
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India
| | - Balazs Aczel
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Sylwia Adamus
- Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Filip
- Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Yuki Yamada
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Ayumi Ikeda
- Graduate School of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Daniel L Eaves
- School of Biomedical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
| | | | | | - Michal Parzuchowski
- Center of Research on Cognition and Behavior, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Natalie Butcher
- Department of Psychology, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Dana M Basnight-Brown
- Department of Psychology, United States International University-Africa, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - José A Hinojosa
- Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
- Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pedro R Montoro
- Departamento de Psicología Básica 1, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Lady G Javela D
- Programa de Psicología, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | - Hans IJzerman
- LIP/PC2s, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | | | - Sarah D Pressman
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Pascal M Gygax
- Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Asil A Özdoğru
- Department of Psychology, Üsküdar University, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Susana Ruiz-Fernandez
- FOM University of Applied Sciences, Essen, Germany
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Lowell Gaertner
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Marco Marozzi
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Venice, Italy
| | - Marco Tullio Liuzza
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, 'Magna Graecia' University of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
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Ludwig J, Strack F. Asymmetrical friendships? People are willing to risk COVID-19 infection from friends but are reluctant to pass it on to them. J Appl Soc Psychol 2022; 53:JASP12927. [PMID: 36249315 PMCID: PMC9539111 DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Although most protective behaviors related to the COVID-19 pandemic come with personal costs, they will produce the largest benefit if everybody cooperates. This study explores two interacting factors that drive cooperation in this tension between private and collective interests. A preregistered experiment (N = 299) examined (a) how the quality of the relation among interacting partners (social proximity), and (b) how focusing on the risk of self-infection versus onward transmission affected intentions to engage in protective behaviors. The results suggested that risk focus was an important moderator of the relation between social proximity and protection intentions. Specifically, participants were more willing to accept the risk of self-infection from close others than from strangers, resulting in less caution toward a friend than toward a distant other. However, when onward transmission was the primary concern, participants were more reluctant to effect transmission to close others, resulting in more caution toward friends than strangers. These findings inform the debate about effective nonclinical measures against the pandemic. Practical implications for risk communication are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Ludwig
- Institute for PsychologyJulius‐Maximilians‐Universität WürzburgWürzburgGermany
- Coller School of ManagementTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
| | - Fritz Strack
- Institute for PsychologyJulius‐Maximilians‐Universität WürzburgWürzburgGermany
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4
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, Universität Wὒrzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Norbert Schwarz
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Abstract
The act of physically cleaning one's hands may reduce the impact of past experiences, termed clean-slate effect. Cleaning was found to affect negative, neutral, and mildly positive states. We extend this influence to success, a self-serving state. We manipulated success vs. failure and measured changes in optimism (Experiment 1) or self-esteem (Experiment 2). Moreover, we examined boundary conditions for the clean-slate effect. Experiment 1 indicates that the influence of performance on optimism diminishes if participants knew (compared to did not know) they were cleaning their hands. Experiment 2 indicates that the influence of performance on self-esteem diminishes if participants cleaned themselves (compared to an object). These results suggest that the clean-slate effect requires both awareness and self-reference of the cleaning act. Thus, the clean-slate effect seems to depend on both conscious inferences and automatic processes. A meta-analysis across the experiments confirms a moderate-sized clean-slate effect.
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Zürn M, Strack F. When More Is Better - Consumption Priming Decreases Responders' Rejections in the Ultimatum Game. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2226. [PMID: 29326637 PMCID: PMC5742421 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During the past decades, economic theories of rational choice have been exposed to outcomes that were severe challenges to their claim of universal validity. For example, traditional theories cannot account for refusals to cooperate if cooperation would result in higher payoffs. A prominent illustration are responders' rejections of positive but unequal payoffs in the Ultimatum Game. To accommodate this anomaly in a rational framework one needs to assume both a preference for higher payoffs and a preference for equal payoffs. The current set of studies shows that the relative weight of these preference components depends on external conditions and that consumption priming may decrease responders' rejections of unequal payoffs. Specifically, we demonstrate that increasing the accessibility of consumption-related information accentuates the preference for higher payoffs. Furthermore, consumption priming increased responders' reaction times for unequal payoffs which suggests an increased conflict between both preference components. While these results may also be integrated into existing social preference models, we try to identify some basic psychological processes underlying economic decision making. Going beyond the Ultimatum Game, we propose that a distinction between comparative and deductive evaluations may provide a more general framework to account for various anomalies in behavioral economics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Zürn
- Department of Psychology, Social and Economic Cognition II, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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Kashima Y, Kashima E, Farsides T, Kim U, Strack F, Werth L, Yuki M. Culture and Context-sensitive Self: The Amount and Meaning of Context-sensitivity of Phenomenal Self Differ Across Cultures. Self and Identity 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/13576500342000095a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Emiko Kashima
- b Swinburne University of Technology , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
| | | | | | | | - Lioba Werth
- e University of Würzburg , Würzburg , Germany
| | - Masaki Yuki
- f Hokkaido University , Sapporo, Hokkaido , Japan
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Schubert L, Körner A, Lindau B, Strack F, Topolinski S. Open-Minded Midwifes, Literate Butchers, and Greedy Hooligans-The Independent Contributions of Stereotype Valence and Consistency on Evaluative Judgments. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1723. [PMID: 29062289 PMCID: PMC5640976 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Do people evaluate an open-minded midwife less positively than a caring midwife? Both open-minded and caring are generally seen as positive attributes. However, consistency varies-the attribute caring is consistent with the midwife stereotype while open-minded is not. In general, both stimulus valence and consistency can influence evaluations. Six experiments investigated the respective influence of valence and consistency on evaluative judgments in the domain of stereotyping. In an impression formation paradigm, valence and consistency of stereotypic information about target persons were manipulated orthogonally and spontaneous evaluations of these target persons were measured. Valence reliably influenced evaluations. However, for strongly valenced stereotypes, no effect of consistency was observed. Parameters possibly preventing the occurrence of consistency effects were ruled out, specifically, valence of inconsistent attributes, processing priority of category information, and impression formation instructions. However, consistency had subtle effects on evaluative judgments if the information about a target person was not strongly valenced and experimental conditions were optimal. Concluding, in principle, both stereotype valence and consistency can play a role in evaluative judgments of stereotypic target persons. However, the more subtle influence of consistency does not seem to substantially influence evaluations of stereotyped target persons. Implications for fluency research and stereotype disconfirmation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Schubert
- Institute of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anita Körner
- Institute of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Berit Lindau
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Fritz Strack
- Institute of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sascha Topolinski
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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9
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
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10
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Strack F, Förster J. Self-Reflection and Recognition: The Role of Metacognitive Knowledge in the Attribution of Recollective Experience. Pers Soc Psychol Rev 2016; 2:111-23. [PMID: 15647139 DOI: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0202_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
We argue that to understand how a recognition task is solved, it is helpful to study the inferences that are drawn on the basis of psychological self-knowledge. This claim is supported by findings from 3 experiments in which participants' metacognitive knowledge was either measured or manipulated. Specifically, it was found that when the quality of a recollective experience was not associated with one particular cause, knowledge about whether one would have noted or remembered a stimulus is used. In conclusion, we argue that a perspective that is derived from attribution theory in social psychology may be fruitfully applied to phenomena of recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Strack
- Department of Psychology, Universitat Würzburg, Germany.
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12
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13
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Abstract
The impact of happy and sad moods on the processing of persuasive communications is explored. In Experiment 1, sad subjects were influenced by a counter attitudinal message only if the arguments presented were strong, not if they were weak Happy subjects, however, were equally persuaded by strong and weak arguments, unless explicitly instructed to pay attention to the content of the message. Subjects' cognitive responses revealed a parallel pattern, suggesting that the findings reflect the impact of mood on cognitive elaboration of the message. In Experiment 2, working on a distractor task during message exposure eliminated the advantage of strong over weak arguments under bad-mood conditions. Good-mood subjects were not affected by a distracting task, suggesting that they did not engage in message elaboration to begin with. It is concluded that subjects in a good mood are less likely to engage in message elaboration than subjects in a bad mood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Norbert Schwarz
- Zentrum für Umfragen, Methoden und Analysen (ZUMA), Mannheim
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14
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Abstract
Three hypotheses were tested: that feedback from facial expressions can provide the valence of an emotional reaction, that one's level of arousal can provide the felt intensity of that reaction, and that people use these sensations as information when appraising a stimulus that provides no clear valence of its own. Subjects read a story to which either understanding or anger was a possible reaction. While reading the story, all subjects were induced to hold their faces in expressions of either happiness or anger. In addition, one group of subjects engaged in 2 min of vigorous exercise immediately before reading the story. Another group engaged in the exercise 90 s before reading the story. The control group read the story without having exercised. Nonaroused subjects tended to report more favorable reactions when smiling than when holding an angry expression. This difference was signify cant when there was a delay between the exercise and the rating task and was reduced to nonsignificance when there was no delay. These results are discussed in the context of a theory of private self-perception in which people use their bodily sensations as information when making judgments.
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Englich B, Mussweiler T, Strack F. Playing Dice With Criminal Sentences: The Influence of Irrelevant Anchors on Experts’ Judicial Decision Making. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2016; 32:188-200. [PMID: 16382081 DOI: 10.1177/0146167205282152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Judicial sentencing decisions should be guided by facts, not by chance. The present research however demonstrates that the sentencing decisions of experienced legal professionals are influenced by irrelevant sentencing demands even if they are blatantly determined at random. Participating legal experts anchored their sentencing decisions on a given sentencing demand and assimilated toward it even if this demand came from an irrelevant source (Study 1), they were informed that this demand was randomly determined (Study 2), or they randomly determined this demand themselves by throwing dice (Study 3). Expertise and experience did not reduce this effect. This sentencing bias appears to be produced by a selective increase in the accessibility of arguments that are consistent with the random sentencing demand: The accessibility of incriminating arguments was higher if participants were confronted with a high rather than a low anchor (Study 4). Practical and theoretical implications of this research are discussed.
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Mussweiler T, Strack F, Pfeiffer T. Overcoming the Inevitable Anchoring Effect: Considering the Opposite Compensates for Selective Accessibility. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/01461672002611010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Anchoring effects—the assimilation of a numeric estimate to a previously considered standard—have proved to be remarkably robust. Results of two studies, however, demonstrate that anchoring can be reduced by applying a consider-the-opposite strategy. Based on the Selective Accessibility Model, which assumes that anchoring is mediated by the selectively increased accessibility of anchor-consistent knowledge, the authors hypothesized that increasing the accessibility of anchor-inconsistent knowledge mitigates the effect. Considering the opposite (i.e., generating reasons why an anchor is inappropriate) fulfills this objective and consequently proves to be a successful corrective strategy. In a real-world setting using experts as participants, Study 1 dem-onstrated that listing arguments that speak against a provided anchor value reduces the effect. Study 2 further revealed that the effects of anchoring and considering the opposite are additive.
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Abstract
A procedure is suggested for identifying causal effects when it is impossible to manipulate the independent variable of interest or to control confounded variables statistically. If a variable has a causal influence, this influence should be more pronounced when the variable is salient than when it is not. The applicability of this salience approach is illustrated in a study on the effects of the German job-ban policy on the politic al behaviors of individuals. Applications and limitations of the approach are discussed.
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Abstract
It has been suggested that the use of different memory systems can be identified by asking subjects whether they remember or know a recognized stimulus (e g, Gardiner & Java, 1990, Tulving, 1985) In this view, remember responses indicate the use of episodic memory, and know responses the use of implicit memory (e g, Gardiner & Java, in press) or semantic memory (Tulving, 1993) We criticize this position on both conceptual and empirical grounds We argue that the concept of knowing and the instructions of the studies confound declarative knowledge (knowledge by description) and familiarity-based knowledge (knowledge by acquaintance) The two types of knowledge, however, seem to be associated with different psychological processes To test this notion, we conducted two recognition experiments in which the response criteria were either explicitly or implicitly manipulated The results clearly suggest that know responses are more likely than remember responses to be influenced by judgmental strategies that do not require a memorial presentation of the known stimulus Self-reports appear to be useful indicators of underlying mechanisms only to the extent that it is sufficiently understood how such reports are generated
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg Würzburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg Würzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Weyers
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg Würzburg, Germany
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Abstract
There has been increasing criticism of the way psychologists conduct and analyze studies. These critiques as well as failures to replicate several high-profile studies have been used as justification to proclaim a "replication crisis" in psychology. Psychologists are encouraged to conduct more "exact" replications of published studies to assess the reproducibility of psychological research. This article argues that the alleged "crisis of replicability" is primarily due to an epistemological misunderstanding that emphasizes the phenomenon instead of its underlying mechanisms. As a consequence, a replicated phenomenon may not serve as a rigorous test of a theoretical hypothesis because identical operationalizations of variables in studies conducted at different times and with different subject populations might test different theoretical constructs. Therefore, we propose that for meaningful replications, attempts at reinstating the original circumstances are not sufficient. Instead, replicators must ascertain that conditions are realized that reflect the theoretical variable(s) manipulated (and/or measured) in the original study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Stroebe
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, University of Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Germany
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21
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Abstract
Though human beings embody a unique ability for planned behavior, they also often act impulsively. This insight may be important for the study of self-control situations in which people are torn between their long-term goals to restrain behavior and their immediate impulses that promise hedonic fulfillment. In the present article, we outline a dual-systems perspective of impulse and self-control and suggest a framework for the prediction of self-control outcomes. This framework combines three elements that, considered jointly, may enable a more precise prediction of self-control outcomes than they do when studied in isolation: impulsive precursors of behavior, reflective precursors, and situational or dispositional boundary conditions. The theoretical and practical utility of such an approach is demonstrated by drawing on recent evidence from several domains of self-control such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior.
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Abstract
Research on embodiment is rich in impressive demonstrations but somewhat poor in comprehensive explanations. Although some moderators and driving mechanisms have been identified, a comprehensive conceptual account of how bodily states or dynamics influence behavior is still missing. Here, we attempt to integrate current knowledge by describing three basic psychological mechanisms: direct state induction, which influences how humans feel or process information, unmediated by any other cognitive mechanism; modal priming, which changes the accessibility of concepts associated with a bodily state; sensorimotor simulation, which affects the ease with which congruent and incongruent actions are performed. We argue that the joint impact of these mechanisms can account for most existing embodiment effects. Additionally, we summarize empirical tests for distinguishing these mechanisms and suggest a guideline for future research about the mechanisms underlying embodiment effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Körner
- Department of Psychology II, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sascha Topolinski
- Social and Economic Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology II, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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23
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Abstract
The emotion of surprise entails a complex of immediate responses, such as cognitive interruption, attention allocation to, and more systematic processing of the surprising stimulus. All these processes serve the ultimate function to increase processing depth and thus cognitively master the surprising stimulus. The present account introduces phasic negative affect as the underlying mechanism responsible for this switch in operating mode. Surprising stimuli are schema-discrepant and thus entail cognitive disfluency, which elicits immediate negative affect. This affect in turn works like a phasic cognitive tuning switching the current processing mode from more automatic and heuristic to more systematic and reflective processing. Directly testing the initial elicitation of negative affect by surprising events, the present experiment presented high and low surprising neutral trivia statements to N = 28 participants while assessing their spontaneous facial expressions via facial electromyography. High compared to low surprising trivia elicited higher corrugator activity, indicative of negative affect and mental effort, while leaving zygomaticus (positive affect) and frontalis (cultural surprise expression) activity unaffected. Future research shall investigate the mediating role of negative affect in eliciting surprise-related outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Topolinski
- Department of Psychology, Social and Economic Cognition, University of Cologne , Cologne, Germany
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Monin B, Oppenheimer DM, Ferguson MJ, Carter TJ, Hassin RR, Crisp RJ, Miles E, Husnu S, Schwarz N, Strack F, Klein RA, Ratliff KA, Vianello M, Adams RB, Bahník Š, Bernstein MJ, Bocian K, Brandt MJ, Brooks B, Chloe Brumbaugh C, Cemalcilar Z, Chandler J, Cheong W, Davis WE, Devos T, Eisner M, Frankowska N, Furrow D, Maria Galliani E, Hasselman F, Hicks JA, Hovermale JF, Jane Hunt S, Huntsinger JR, IJzerman H, John MS, Joy-Gaba JA, Barry Kappes H, Krueger LE, Kurtz J, Levitan CA, Mallett RK, Morris WL, Nelson AJ, Nier JA, Packard G, Pilati R, Rutchick AM, Schmidt K, Skorinko JL, Smith R, Steiner TG, Storbeck J, Van Swol LM, Thompson D, van ‘t Veer AE, Ann Vaughn L, Vranka M, Wichman AL, Woodzicka JA, Nosek BA, Kahneman D. Commentaries and Rejoinder on. Social Psychology 2014. [DOI: 10.1027/1864-9335/a000202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
While direct replications such as the “Many Labs” project are extremely valuable in testing the reliability of published findings across laboratories, they reflect the common reliance in psychology on single vignettes or stimuli, which limits the scope of the conclusions that can be reached. New experimental tools and statistical techniques make it easier to routinely sample stimuli, and to appropriately treat them as random factors. We encourage researchers to get into the habit of including multiple versions of the content (e.g., stimuli or vignettes) in their designs, to increase confidence in cross-stimulus generalization and to yield more realistic estimates of effect size. We call on editors to be aware of the challenges inherent in such stimulus sampling, to expect and tolerate unexplained variability in observed effect size between stimuli, and to encourage stimulus sampling instead of the deceptively cleaner picture offered by the current reliance on single stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Travis J. Carter
- Colby College, Waterville, WE, USA
- Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ran R. Hassin
- Colby College, Waterville, WE, USA
- Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Konrad Bocian
- University of Social Sciences and Humanities Campus Sopot, Sopot, Poland
| | | | | | | | | | - Jesse Chandler
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- PRIME Research, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Natalia Frankowska
- University of Social Sciences and Humanities Campus Sopot, Sopot, Poland
| | - David Furrow
- Mount Saint Vincent University, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | | | - Fred Hasselman
- Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - S. Jane Hunt
- Texas A&M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jaime Kurtz
- James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - A. E. van ‘t Veer
- Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
- Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | - Brian A. Nosek
- University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Center for Open Science, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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Schwarz N, Strack F. Nachruf auf Martin Irle. Psychologische Rundschau 2014. [DOI: 10.1026/0033-3042/a000190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Abstract
There has been increasing criticism of the way psychologists conduct and analyze studies. These critiques as well as failures to replicate several high-profile studies have been used as justification to proclaim a "replication crisis" in psychology. Psychologists are encouraged to conduct more "exact" replications of published studies to assess the reproducibility of psychological research. This article argues that the alleged "crisis of replicability" is primarily due to an epistemological misunderstanding that emphasizes the phenomenon instead of its underlying mechanisms. As a consequence, a replicated phenomenon may not serve as a rigorous test of a theoretical hypothesis because identical operationalizations of variables in studies conducted at different times and with different subject populations might test different theoretical constructs. Therefore, we propose that for meaningful replications, attempts at reinstating the original circumstances are not sufficient. Instead, replicators must ascertain that conditions are realized that reflect the theoretical variable(s) manipulated (and/or measured) in the original study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Stroebe
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, University of Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Fritz Strack
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Germany
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Gerdes AB, Wieser MJ, Alpers GW, Strack F, Pauli P. Why do you smile at me while I'm in pain? — Pain selectively modulates voluntary facial muscle responses to happy faces. Int J Psychophysiol 2012; 85:161-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2011] [Revised: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Abstract
Approach and avoidance are two basic motivational orientations. Their activation influences cognitive and perceptive processes: Previous work suggests that an approach orientation instigates a focus on larger units as compared to avoidance. Study 1 confirms this assumption using a paradigm that more directly taps a person's tendency to represent objects as belonging to small or large units than prior studies. It was further predicted that the self should also be represented as belonging to larger units, and hence be more interdependent under approach than under avoidance. Study 2 supports this prediction. As a consequence of this focus on belonging to larger units, it was finally predicted that approach results in a stronger identification with one's in-group than avoidance. Studies 3 and 4 support that prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravit Nussinson
- Department of Education and Psychology, The Open University of Israel
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Nussinson R, Seibt B, Häfner M, Strack F. Cognitive consequences of motivational orientation: perceived similarity between objects. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2011; 138:39-44. [PMID: 21636065 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2011] [Revised: 05/04/2011] [Accepted: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent findings suggest that the unconscious activation of the motivational orientations of approach and avoidance is accompanied by the adoption of a more global and a more local processing style, respectively. A global processing style, in turn, is assumed to instigate a focus on similarities whereas a local processing style is assumed to instigate a focus on differences. Integrating these two ideas, the present research examines the hypothesis that participants under approach perceive objects as more similar to each other than participants under avoidance. To test this assumption, we induced the two motivational orientations and elicited judgments of similarities (Experiments 1 and 2) and differences (Experiment 2) for pairs of pictures. Results confirmed the hypothesis. We propose that the relative attunement to similarities/differences under approach/avoidance is functional because it allows for a flexible conceptualization of the environment/an ability to discern slight deviations from what is expected.
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Rothermund K, Stroebe W, Martiny-Hünger T, Thürmer JL, Issa M, Gollwitzer PM, Hofmann W, Strack F, Friese M, Müller J. Kommentare zu . Zwei Seelen wohnen, ach, in meiner Brust. Psychologische Rundschau 2011. [DOI: 10.1026/0033-3042/a000087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Bereits die antike Philosophie hat sich mit der Frage beschäftigt, warum Menschen zuweilen wider besseres Wissen den kurzfristigen Verlockungen des Augenblicks nachgeben und damit wichtigen langfristigen Zielen zuwider handeln. In der modernen Psychologie wird das Problem der Selbstkontrolle in einer ganzen Reihe von Ansätzen aufgegriffen, darunter kybernetische Modelle, intertemporale Entscheidungsmodelle, Zielintentions-Modelle, Zielkonflikt-Modelle, und Zweisystem-Modelle. Zweisystem-Modelle scheinen sich von den übrigen Ansätzen dadurch abzuheben, dass sie impulsive Prozesse der Verhaltensdetermination explizit thematisieren und in Erklärungsmodelle menschlichen Verhaltens integrieren. Wir berichten jüngere empirische Befunde, die aus einem solchen Ansatz erwachsen sind und diskutieren die Vorteile und Grenzen einer Zweisystem-Modellierung von Selbstkontrollkonflikten aus grundlagen- und anwendungsorientierter Sicht.
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Strack F, Schwarz N, Chassein B, Kern D, Wagner D. Salience of comparison standards and the activation of social norms: Consequences for judgements of happiness and their communication. British Journal of Social Psychology 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1990.tb00912.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Trotz der großen Popularität der bildgebenden Verfahren in den Neurowissenschaften stellen sich einige kritische Fragen, welche die Logik und die Methodologie der Hirnforschung betreffen. Darüber hinaus gibt es Zweifel am Erkenntnisgewinn, den die Psychologie aus der lokationsorientierten Hirnforschung ziehen kann und es entsteht die Gefahr, dass zentrale Fragestellungen der Psychologie der hirnanatomischen Perspektive untergeordnet werden.
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Strack F. Internationalität als Aufgabe – Nachruf auf Stefan Hormuth. Psychologische Rundschau 2010. [DOI: 10.1026/0033-3042/a000025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Nussinson R, Seibt B, Häfner M, Strack F. Come a Bit Closer: Approach Motor Actions Lead to Feeling Similar and Behavioral Assimilation. Social Cognition 2010. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2010.28.1.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Abstract
AIMS The main aim of this study was to test whether automatic action-tendencies to approach alcohol can be modified, and whether this affects drinking behaviour. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS Forty-two hazardous drinkers were assigned randomly to a condition in which they were implicitly trained to avoid or to approach alcohol, using a training variety of the alcohol Approach Avoidance Test (AAT). Participants pushed or pulled a joystick in response to picture-format (landscape or portrait). The pictures depicted alcoholic or non-alcoholic drinks. Participants in the avoid-alcohol condition pushed most alcoholic and pulled most non-alcoholic drinks. For participants in the approach-alcohol condition these contingencies were reversed. After the implicit training, participants performed a taste test, including beers and soft drinks. Automatic action tendencies at post-test were assessed with the AAT, including both trained and untrained pictures, and with a different test (Implicit Association Test, IAT). We further tested effects on subjective craving. RESULTS Action tendencies for alcohol changed in accordance with training condition, with the largest effects in the clinically relevant avoid-alcohol condition. These effects occurred outside subjective awareness and generalized to new pictures in the AAT and to an entirely different test using words, rather than pictures (IAT). In relatively heavy drinking participants who demonstrated changed action tendencies in accordance with their training condition, effects were found on drinking behaviour, with participants in the approach-alcohol condition drinking more alcohol than participants in the avoid-alcohol condition. No effect was found on subjective craving. CONCLUSIONS Retraining automatic processes may help to regain control over addictive impulses, which points to new treatment possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinout W Wiers
- University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychology, Roetersstraat 15, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Topolinski S, Strack F. Scanning the “Fringe” of consciousness: What is felt and what is not felt in intuitions about semantic coherence. Conscious Cogn 2009; 18:608-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2008.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2008] [Revised: 05/29/2008] [Accepted: 06/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
The authors apply an embodied account to mere exposure, arguing that through the repeated exposure of a particular stimulus, motor responses specifically associated to that stimulus are repeatedly simulated, thus trained, and become increasingly fluent. This increased fluency drives preferences for repeated stimuli. This hypothesis was tested by blocking stimulus-specific motor simulations during repeated exposure. In Experiment 1, chewing gum while evaluating stimuli destroyed mere exposure effects (MEEs) for words but not for visual characters. However, concurrently kneading a ball left both MEEs unaffected. In Experiment 2, concurrently whispering an unrelated word destroyed MEEs for words but not for characters, even when implemented either exclusively during the initial presentation or during the test phase and when the first presentation involved an evaluation or a mere study of the stimuli. In Experiment 3, a double dissociation between 2 classes of stimuli was demonstrated, namely, words (oral) and tunes (vocal). A concurrent oral task (tongue movements) destroyed MEEs for words but not for tone sequences. A concurrent vocal task (humming "mm-hm") destroyed MEEs for tone sequences but not for words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Topolinski
- Department of Psychology, University of Wurzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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42
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Topolinski S, Likowski KU, Weyers P, Strack F. The face of fluency: Semantic coherence automatically elicits a specific pattern of facial muscle reactions. Cogn Emot 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/02699930801994112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Krieglmeyer R, Wittstadt D, Strack F. How attribution influences aggression: Answers to an old question by using an implicit measure of anger. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2008.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Topolinski S, Strack F. The architecture of intuition: Fluency and affect determine intuitive judgments of semantic and visual coherence and judgments of grammaticality in artificial grammar learning. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 138:39-63. [DOI: 10.1037/a0014678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Hoefling A, Likowski KU, Deutsch R, Häfner M, Seibt B, Mühlberger A, Weyers P, Strack F. When hunger finds no fault with moldy corn: Food deprivation reduces food-related disgust. Emotion 2009; 9:50-8. [DOI: 10.1037/a0014449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abstract
Numerous studies suggest that processing verbal materials containing negations slows down cognition and makes it more error-prone. This suggests that processing negations affords relatively nonautomatic processes. The present research studied the role of two automaticity features (processing speed and resource dependency) for negation processing. In three experiments, we tested the impact of verbal negations on affective priming effects in the Affect Misattribution Paradigm. Going beyond previous work, the results indicate that negations can be processed unintentionally and quickly (Experiments 1 and 2). In Experiment 3, negations failed to qualify affective priming effects when participants’ working memory was taxed by memorizing an eight-digit number. In sum, the experiments suggest that negations can be processed unintentionally, very quickly, but that they rely on working-memory resources.
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Seshu M, Hunter A, Hunter E, Strack F, Mollet S, Morgan Thomas R, Overs C, Ditmore M, Allman D. U.N. guidance note on HIV and sex work "reworked" by activists. HIV AIDS Policy Law Rev 2008; 13:95-97. [PMID: 19297779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In 2007, UNAIDS issued a guidance note on HIV and sex work, the tone and contents of which angered sex workers, activists and public health workers worldwide. In this article, based on presentations at the conference, M. Seshu et al describe the problems with the guidance note, discuss the reaction to its publication, and explain how a group of activists got together to develop a reworked version of the guidance note.
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Seibt B, Neumann R, Nussinson R, Strack F. Movement direction or change in distance? Self- and object-related approach–avoidance motions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2007.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Gawronski B, Peters KR, Brochu PM, Strack F. Understanding the Relations Between Different Forms of Racial Prejudice: A Cognitive Consistency Perspective. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2008; 34:648-65. [DOI: 10.1177/0146167207313729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Research on racial prejudice is currently characterized by the existence of diverse concepts (e.g., implicit prejudice, old-fashioned racism, modern racism, aversive racism) that are not well integrated from a general perspective. The present article proposes an integrative framework for these concepts employing a cognitive consistency perspective. Specifically, it is argued that the reliance on immediate affective reactions toward racial minority groups in evaluative judgments about these groups depends on the consistency of this evaluation with other relevant beliefs pertaining to central components of old-fashioned, modern, and aversive forms of prejudice. A central prediction of the proposed framework is that the relation between “implicit” and “explicit” prejudice should be moderated by the interaction of egalitarianism-related, nonprejudicial goals and perceptions of discrimination. This prediction was confirmed in a series of three studies. Implications for research on prejudice are discussed.
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