Process Development for the Enzymatic Gram-Scale Production of the Unnatural Nucleotide Sugar UDP-6-azido-GalNAc

Azido sugars hold great promise as substrates in numerous click-chemistry applications. However, the synthesis of activated azido sugars is limited by cost and complexity. Conventional chemical activation methods are intricate and time-consuming. In response, we have developed a process for the large-scale production of UDP-6-azido-GalNAc through enzymatic nucleotide sugar synthesis on a gram scale. Our optimization strategies encompassed refining the process parameters of an enzyme cascade featuring NahK from Bifidobacterium longum and AGX1 from Homo sapiens. Using the repetitive-batch-mode technology, we synthesized up to 2.1 g of UDP-6-azido-GalNAc, achieving yields up to 97% in five consecutive batch cycles using a single enzyme batch. The synthesis process demonstrated to have total turnover numbers (TTNs) between 4.4-4.8 g of product per gram of enzyme (gP/gE) and STYs ranging from 1.7-2.4 g per liter per hour (g*L-1*h-1). By purification of a product solution pool containing 2.6 g (4.1 mmol) UDP-6-azido-GalNAc, 2.1 g (2,122.1 mg) UDP-6-azido-GalNAc (sodium salt) with a purity of 99.96 % (HPLC) were obtained. The overall recovery after purification was 81 % (3.32 mmol). Our work establishes a robust production platform for the gram-scale synthesis of unnatural nucleotide sugars, opening new avenues for applications in glycan engineering.

Isolation and characterization of four novel parsley proteins that interact with the transcriptional regulators CPRF1 and CPRF2

The common plant regulatory factors (CPRFs) from parsley are transcription factors with a basic-leucine-zipper motif that bind to cis-regulatory elements frequently found in promoters of light-regulated genes. Proposed to function in concert with members of other transcription factor families, CPRFs regulate the transcriptional activity of many target genes. Here, we report that, in contrast to CPRF2, which operates as a transcriptional activator, CPRF1 functions as repressor in vivo. Two-hybrid screens using CPRF1 and CPRF2 as "baits" resulted in the isolation of four novel parsley proteins which interact with either CPRF1 or CPRF2 in vivo. Three of these factors represent new parsley bZIP factors, designated CPRF5-CPRF7, whereas the fourth, named CPRF1-interacting protein (CIP), shows no homology to any other known protein. CPRF5 and CIP specifically interact with CPRF1, whilst CPRF6 and CPRF7 exclusively form heterodimers with CPRF2. CPRF5, CPRF6 and CPRF7 are transcription factors that exhibit sequence-specific DNA-binding as well as transactivation abilities, whereas the function of CIP remains elusive. The newly isolated CPRFs and CIP are constitutively localized in the nucleus in parsley protoplasts. Furthermore, mRNA accumulation studies revealed that the expression of these novel bZIP genes and CIP is not altered by exposure to light. We discuss the possible roles of the newly identified proteins in CPRF1- and CPRF2-dependent target gene expression.

Gcn2 mediates Gcn4 activation in response to glucose stimulation or UV radiation not via GCN4 translation

In mammalian cells transcription factors of the AP-1 family are activated by either stress signals such as UV radiation, or mitogenic signals such as growth factors. Here we show that a similar situation exists in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The AP-1 transcriptional activator Gcn4, known to be activated by stress signals such as UV radiation and amino acids starvation, is also induced by growth stimulation such as glucose. We show that glucose-dependent Gcn4 activation is mediated through the Ras/cAMP pathway. This pathway is also responsible for UV-dependent Gcn4 activation but is not involved in Gcn4 activation by amino acid starvation. Thus, the unusual phenomenon of activation of mitogenic pathways and AP-1 factors by contradictory stimuli through Ras is conserved from yeast to mammals. We also show that activation of Gcn4 by glucose and UV requires Gcn2 activity. However, in contrast to its role in amino acid starvation, Gcn2 does not increase eIF2alpha phosphorylation or translation of GCN4 mRNA in response to glucose or UV. These findings suggest a novel mechanism of action for Gcn2. The finding that Gcn4 is activated in response to glucose via the Ras/cAMP pathway suggests that this cascade coordinates glucose metabolism with amino acids and purine biosynthesis and thereby ensures availability of both energy and essential building blocks for continuation of the cell cycle.

Identification of a novel gene coding for neoxanthin synthase from Solanum tuberosum

The polymerase chain reaction analysis of potato plants, transformed with capsanthin capsorubin synthase ccs, revealed the presence of a highly related gene. The cloned cDNA showed at the protein level 89.6% identity to CCS. This suggested that the novel enzyme catalyzes a mechanistically similar reaction. Such a reaction is represented by neoxanthin synthase (NXS), forming the xanthophyll neoxanthin, a direct substrate for abscisic acid formation. The function of the novel enzyme could be proven by transient expression in plant protoplasts and high performance liquid chromatography analysis. The cloned NXS was imported in vitro into plastids, the compartment of carotenoid biosynthesis.

UV-damage-mediated induction of homologous recombination in Arabidopsis is dependent on photosynthetically active radiation

Plants are continuously subjected to UV-B radiation (UV-B; 280-320 nm) as a component of sunlight causing damage to the genome. For elimination of DNA damage, a set of repair mechanisms, mainly photoreactivation, excision, and recombination repair, has evolved. Whereas photoreactivation and excision repair have been intensely studied during the last few years, recombination repair, its regulation, and its interrelationship with photoreactivation in response to UV-B-induced DNA damage is still poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed somatic homologous recombination in a transgenic Arabidopsis line carrying a beta-glucuronidase gene as a recombination marker and in offsprings of crosses of this line with a photolyase deficient uvr2-1 mutant. UV-B radiation stimulated recombination frequencies in a dose-dependent manner correlating linearly with cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) levels. Genetic deficiency for CPD-specific photoreactivation resulted in a drastic increase of recombination events, indicating that homologous recombination might be directly involved in eliminating CPD damage. UV-B irradiation stimulated recombination mainly in the presence of photosynthetic active radiation (400-700 nm) irrespective of photolyase activities. Our results suggest that UV-B-induced recombination processes may depend on energy supply derived from photosynthesis.

Glutathione and a UV light-induced glutathione S-transferase are involved in signaling to chalcone synthase in cell cultures

UV irradiation stimulates expression of the gene encoding the key enzyme chalcone synthase (CHS), which leads to the generation of protective flavonoids in parsley cell cultures. CHS transcripts increase after 3 to 4 hr, and early genes are involved in the signal transduction to the CHS promoter. By using the fluorescent differential display technique in a large-scale screening, several early UV light-induced genes were isolated. Of these, a novel glutathione S-transferase (PcGST1) is induced within 2 hr and precedes CHS expression. Overexpression of PcGST1 in transformed cell lines containing a CHS promoter/luciferase reporter (CHS-LUC) affected the onset of LUC transcription. Supplementing these cell lines with glutathione immediately stimulated CHS-LUC expression within 2 hr in dark-incubated cells and resulted in a biphasic induction profile in UV-irradiated cells. Our data indicate the involvement of glutathione and PcGST1 in early events of a UV light-dependent signal transduction pathway to CHS. In this context, the oxidative status of a cell acts as a central regulating element.

Glutathione and a UV light-induced glutathione S-transferase are involved in signaling to chalcone synthase in cell cultures

UV irradiation stimulates expression of the gene encoding the key enzyme chalcone synthase (CHS), which leads to the generation of protective flavonoids in parsley cell cultures. CHS transcripts increase after 3 to 4 hr, and early genes are involved in the signal transduction to the CHS promoter. By using the fluorescent differential display technique in a large-scale screening, several early UV light-induced genes were isolated. Of these, a novel glutathione S-transferase (PcGST1) is induced within 2 hr and precedes CHS expression. Overexpression of PcGST1 in transformed cell lines containing a CHS promoter/luciferase reporter (CHS-LUC) affected the onset of LUC transcription. Supplementing these cell lines with glutathione immediately stimulated CHS-LUC expression within 2 hr in dark-incubated cells and resulted in a biphasic induction profile in UV-irradiated cells. Our data indicate the involvement of glutathione and PcGST1 in early events of a UV light-dependent signal transduction pathway to CHS. In this context, the oxidative status of a cell acts as a central regulating element.

Transcriptional activation of the parsley chalcone synthase promoter in heterologous pea and yeast systems

Introduction by electroporation of different parsley (Petroselinum crispum) CHS-promoter/beta-glucuronidase(GUS)-reporter constructs into pea (Pisum sativum L.) protoplasts leads to a high constitutive GUS-expression and to the loss of the light-inducibility seen in the homologous parsley protoplast system. These results indicate that Unit 1 of the parsley CHS-promoter is only partly responsible for the GUS-expression detected. Instead, additional cis-elements, which are located downstream within 100 bp from the transcriptional start site, mediate the de-repression in pea protoplasts. In contrast, in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells, the GUS expression from the heterologous CHS/GUS construct is controlled by elements between Unit 1 and -100 bp. In both pea and yeast cells, transcription factors different from those regulating UV-responsiveness in parsley, are probably mediating the constitutive expression from the heterologous construct. The results with pea protoplasts imply that protoplastation of pea leaf cells itself induces de-repression as a result of stress to the protoplasts. This notion was strengthened by the finding that mRNA levels of the endogenous chalcone synthase were drastically increased as the result of the protoplastation procedure.

Phosphorylation of the parsley bZIP transcription factor CPRF2 is regulated by light

The analysis of the complex network of signal transduction chains has demonstrated the importance of transcription factor activities for the control of gene expression. To understand how transcription factor activities in plants are regulated in response to light, we analyzed the common plant regulatory factor 2 (CPRF2) from parsley (Petroselinum crispum L.) that interacts with promoter elements of light-regulated genes. Here, we demonstrate that CPRF2 is a phosphoprotein in vivo and that its phosphorylation state is rapidly increased in response to light. Phosphorylation in vitro as well as in vivo occurs primarily within the C-terminal half of the factor, and is caused by a cytosolic 40-kDa protein serine kinase. In contrast to other plant basic leucine-zipper motif factors, phosphorylation of CPRF2 does not alter its DNA binding activity. Therefore, we discuss alternative functions of the light-dependent phosphorylation of CPRF2 including the regulation of its nucleocytoplasmic partitioning.

Millisecond UV-B irradiation evokes prolonged elevation of cytosolic-free Ca2+ and stimulates gene expression in transgenic parsley cell cultures

Chalcone synthase (CHS) is a key enzyme leading to the generation of protective flavonoids in plants under environmental stress. Expression of the CHS gene is strongly upregulated by exposures to UV light, a response also observed in heterotrophic parsley cell cultures. Although there are hints that the stimulus for CHS expression may be coupled to UV-B irradiation through a rise in cytosolic-free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i), the temporal relationship of these events has never been investigated critically. To explore this question, we have used a CHS promoter/luciferase (CHS/LUC) reporter gene fusion and recorded its expression and [Ca2+]i elevation in a transgenic parsley cell culture following millisecond light pulses. Luciferase expression was enhanced maximally seven- (+/- 2) fold by 30 10 ms flashes of UV-B light. The response was specific to wavelengths of 300-330 nm and could be inhibited in the presence of the Ca2+ channel blocker nifedipine. In parallel measurements, using Fura-2 fluorescence ratio microphotometry, we found that 10 ms UV-B flashes also evoked a gradual and prolonged rise of [Ca2+]i in the parsley cells which was irreversible within the timescale of these experiments, but could be prevented by prior treatment with nifedipine. These, and additional results, indicate a remarkably high temporal sensitivity to, and specificity for, UV-B light in CHS gene expression independent of UV-mediated DNA damage by thymine dimerization. The ability of transient UV-B stimulation to evoke prolonged elevations of [Ca2+]i suggests a functional coupling between the initial light stimulus and subsequent gene expression that takes place many tens of minutes later.

UV-responsive genes of arabidopsis revealed by similarity to the Gcn4-mediated UV response in yeast

A UV response that involves the Ras proteins and AP-1 transcription factors has recently been described in mammals and yeast. To test whether an equivalent response exists in plants, we monitored the expression of Arabidopsis histidinol dehydrogenase gene (HDH), a homologue of the yeast HIS4 gene, which is strongly induced by UV light and is a target of the transcriptional activator Gcn4. We show that HDH mRNA levels increase specifically in response to UV-B light. Only small increases were detected upon exposure to other wavelengths. To isolate plant genes involved in this UV response, a gcn4 mutant was transfected with an Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA library. A new type of nucleotide diphosphate kinase (NDPK Ia) with a significant homology to the human tumor suppressor protein Nm23 rescued the gcn4 phenotype. NDPK Ia specifically binds to the HIS4 promoter in vitro and induces HIS4 transcription in yeast. In Arabidopsis, the NDPK Ia protein is located in the nucleus and cytosol. Expression studies in seedlings revealed that the level of NDPK Ia mRNA, like that of HDH, increases in response to UV-B light. It appears that NDPK Ia and HDH are components of a novel UV-responsive pathway in A. thaliana.

CPRF4a, a novel plant bZIP protein of the CPRF family: comparative analyses of light-dependent expression, post-transcriptional regulation, nuclear import and heterodimerisation

Several DNA-binding proteins with conserved basic region/leucine zipper domains (bZIP) have been isolated from parsley. They all recognise defined ACGT-containing elements (ACEs), including ACE(PcCHSII) in the Light Regulatory Unit LRU1 of the CHS promoter which confers light responsiveness. A new member of this Common Plant Regulatory Factor (CPRF) family, designated CPRF4a, has been cloned, which displays sequence similarity to HBP-1a from wheat, as well as to other plant bZIP proteins. CPRF4a specifically binds as a homodimer to ACE(PcCHSII) and forms heterodimers with CPRF1 but not with CPRF2. In adult parsley plants, CPRF2 and CPRF4a mRNAs are found in all tissues and organs in which the chalcone synthase gene CHS is expressed. In protoplasts from suspension cultured cells, UV irradiation (290-350 nm) did not cause an increase in levels of CPRF1, CPRF2, or CPRF4a mRNA, whereas the corresponding CPRF proteins accumulated within 15 min of light treatment. Furthermore, the rapid light-mediated increase of CPRF proteins was insensitive to transcriptional inhibitors, suggesting that a post-transcriptional mechanism controls CPRF accumulation. CPRFs as well as Arabidopsis thaliana G-box binding factors (GBFs) are selectively transported from the cytosol into the nucleus, as shown in an in vitro nuclear transport system prepared from evacuolated parsley protoplasts, indicating that cytosolic compounds are involved in regulated nuclear targeting of plant bZIP factors.

Regulation of phytochrome A mRNA abundance in parsley seedlings and cell-suspension cultures

A cDNA clone encoding the apoprotein of a parsley phytochrome was isolated and classified as parsley PHYA phytochrome, on the basis of a sequence homology comparison with all available phytochrome sequences. Red light pulses led to a phytochrome-dependent down-regulation of PHYA mRNA abundance in etiolated parsley seedlings to a level of 10-20% compared with the dark control. The PHYA mRNA abundance in a parsley cell suspension culture was also down-regulated by light pulses. Transient expression assays in parsley protoplasts showed light regulation of a chimeric pea PHYA promoter uidA-gene construct.

Light induces rapid changes of the phosphorylation pattern in the cytosol of evacuolated parsley protoplasts

The fractionation of cells of a parsley suspension culture [Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) A. Hill] by protoplasting and subsequent removal of the vacuoles led to physiologically intact evacuolated protoplasts retaining light inducibility of chalcone synthase expression. Lysis of the evacuolated protoplasts permitted the isolation of a pure, highly concentrated cytosolic fraction containing major cytosolic membranes but only minor contamination by proplastids, mitochondria, and nuclei. Short-time irradiations of the cytosol with red or UV-containing white light resulted in very fast changes of the phosphorylation pattern of 18-, 40-, 48-, 55- to 70-, and 120-kDa proteins. Major differences were observed between the phosphorylation patterns obtained by red or UV-containing white light treatment, indicating a different primary action of the excited photoreceptors in vitro. Separation of the microsomal fraction from the cytosolic matrix established the localization of these proteins. Chase and photoreversibility experiments revealed that phytochrome in vitro regulates the phosphorylation of the 40-kDa protein by modifying a soluble cytosolic kinase/phosphatase system.

Light-regulated modification and nuclear translocation of cytosolic G-box binding factors in parsley

Functional cell-free systems may be excellent tools with which to investigate light-dependent signal transduction mechanisms in plants. By evacuolation of parsley protoplasts and subsequent silicon oil gradient centrifugation of lysed evacuolated protoplasts, we obtained a highly pure and concentrated plasma membrane-containing cytosol. Using GT- and G-box DNA elements, we were able to demonstrate a specific localization of a pool of G-box binding activity and factors (GBFs) but not one of GT-box binding activity in this cytosolic fraction. The DNA binding activity of the cytosolic GBFs is modulated in vivo as well as in vitro by light and phosphorylation/dephosphorylation activities. The regulation of cytosolic G-box binding activity by irradiation with continuous white light and phosphorylation correlates with a light-modulated transport of GBFs to the nucleus. This was shown by a GBF-antibody cotranslocation assay in permeabilized, cell-free evacuolated parsley protoplasts. We propose that a light-regulated subcellular displacement of cytosolic GBFs to the nucleus may be an important step in the signal transduction pathway coupling photoreception to light-dependent gene expression.

A light-responsive in vitro transcription system from evacuolated parsley protoplasts

Evacuolated protoplasts (EP) retain transcriptional activity responding, after UV-light treatment, to the expression of chalcone synthase (CHS); this behaviour is similar to the parsley cell culture and protoplasts from which the EP were derived. Chemical lysis of the EP with low concentrations of a detergent in a minimal volume had no negative effect on the inducibility of CHS by UV-containing white light. Based on these observations a new method is presented here for establishing a light-responsive in vitro transcription system from evacuolated protoplasts of a parsley (Petroselinum crispum) cell culture. A 615 bp promoter fragment of the CHS gene, fused to the beta-Glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene, was accurately transcribed as in transiently transformed protoplasts and the reaction was highly sensitive to alpha-amanitin. A 226 bp CHS promoter/GUS reporter construct with mutated cis-acting elements was unable to stimulate GUS transcription, whilst a 341 bp 35S-promoter from the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) was constitutively expressed in dark- or light-treated lysates. The expression of the CHS full-length promoter/GUS construct in the cell-free system was three-fold increased by white or red light compared with the dark level. These results demonstrate that within this in vitro system there must exist a largely intact signal transduction chain between photoreceptor(s) and the CHS promoter. As such it will be a valuable tool for elucidating signalling mechanisms and functional assays of trans-acting factors acting at the end of the pathway.

Analysis of the parsley chalcone-synthase promoter in response to different light qualities

We examined the chalcone synthase (chs) promoter from parsley [Petroselinum crispum Miller (A.W. Hill)] for the existence of separate promoter elements responsible for transcriptional activation of the chs gene by UV-B and by blue light. A combination of in-vivo foot-printing in parsley cells and light-induced transient expression assays with different chs promoter constructs in parsley protoplasts was used. Dark controls and blue-light-irradiated cells gave identical in-vivo footprints on the chs promoter. Pre-irradiation with blue light prior to a UV-B-light pulse is known to cause a shift in the timing of UV-B-light-induced increase in chs transcription rates. This shift was also manifested on the DNA template, since UV-B-light-induced in-vivo footprints in cells pretreated with blue light were detected earlier than in cells which had been irradiated with a UV-B-light pulse only. Although there was a clear shift in the timing of footprint appearance, the patterns of footprinting did not change. Light-induced transient-expression assays revealed that the shortest tested chs promoter which retained any light responsiveness, was sufficient for mediating both induction by UV light and the blue-light-mediated kinetic shift. These findings argue against a spatial separation of UV-B- and blue-light-responsive elements on the chs promoter. We interpret these data by postulating that the signal transduction pathways originating from the excitation of UV-B- and blue-light receptors merge at the chs promoter, or somewhere between light perception and protein-DNA interaction.