Body mass index-dependent shifts along large-scale gradients in human cortical organization explain dietary regulatory success

Making healthy dietary choices is essential for keeping weight within a normal range. Yet many people struggle with dietary self-control despite good intentions. What distinguishes neural processing in those who succeed or fail to implement healthy eating goals? Does this vary by weight status? To examine these questions, we utilized an analytical framework of gradients that characterize systematic spatial patterns of large-scale neural activity, which have the advantage of considering the entire suite of processes subserving self-control and potential regulatory tactics at the whole-brain level. Using an established laboratory food task capturing brain responses in natural and regulatory conditions (N = 123), we demonstrate that regulatory changes of dietary brain states in the gradient space predict individual differences in dietary success. Better regulators required smaller shifts in brain states to achieve larger goal-consistent changes in dietary behaviors, pointing toward efficient network organization. This pattern was most pronounced in individuals with lower weight status (low-BMI, body mass index) but absent in high-BMI individuals. Consistent with prior work, regulatory goals increased activity in frontoparietal brain circuits. However, this shift in brain states alone did not predict variance in dietary success. Instead, regulatory success emerged from combined changes along multiple gradients, showcasing the interplay of different large-scale brain networks subserving dietary control and possible regulatory strategies. Our results provide insights into how the brain might solve the problem of dietary control: Dietary success may be easier for people who adopt modes of large-scale brain activation that do not require significant reconfigurations across contexts and goals.

Altering experienced utility by incidental affect: The interplay of valence and arousal in incidental affect infusion processes

The way we evaluate an experience can be influenced by contextual factors that are unrelated to the experience at hand. A prominent factor that has been shown to infuse into the evaluation processes is incidental affect. Prior research has examined the role of such incidental affect by either focusing on its valence or its arousal, while neglecting the interplay of these two components in the affect infusion process. Based on the affect-integration-motivation (AIM) framework from affective neuroscience, our research proposes a novel arousal transport hypothesis (ATH) that describes how valence and arousal of an affective state jointly influence the evaluation of experiences. We test the ATH in a set of multimethod studies combining functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), skin conductance recording, automated facial affect recording, and behavioral approaches across a range of sensory modalities including auditory, gustatory, and visual. We find that positive incidental affect, induced by viewing affect-laden pictures (vs. neutral pictures) or winning (vs. not winning) monetary rewards, enhances how much an experience (i.e., listening to music, consuming wines, or looking at images) is enjoyed. Tracking moment-based changes of affective states at the neurophysiological level, we demonstrate that valence mediates reported enjoyment and that arousal is necessary to implement and moderate these mediating effects. We rule out alternative explanations for these mediation patterns such as the excitation transfer account and the attention narrowing account. Finally, we discuss how the ATH framework provides a new perspective to explain divergent decision outcomes caused by discrete emotions and its implications for effort-based decision-making. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Altered delay discounting in neurodegeneration: insight into the underlying mechanisms and perspectives for clinical applications

Steeper delay discounting (i.e., the extent to which future rewards are perceived as less valuable than immediate ones) has been proposed as a transdiagnostic process across different health conditions, in particular psychiatric disorders. Impulsive decision-making is a hallmark of different neurodegenerative conditions but little is known about delay discounting in the domain of neurodegenerative conditions. We reviewed studies on delay discounting in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and in patients with dementia (Alzheimer's disease / AD or frontotemporal dementia / FTD). We proposed that delay discounting could be an early marker of the neurodegenerative process. We developed the idea that altered delay discounting is associated with overlapping but distinct neurocognitive mechanisms across neurodegenerative diseases: dopaminergic-related disorders of reward processing in PD, memory/projection deficits due to medial temporal atrophy in AD, modified reward processing due to orbitofrontal atrophy in FTD. Neurodegeneration could provide a framework to decipher the neuropsychological mechanisms of value-based decision-making. Further, delay discounting could become a marker of interest in clinical practice, in particular for differential diagnosis.

An fMRI-Based Brain Marker of Individual Differences in Delay Discounting

Individual differences in delay discounting-how much we discount future compared to immediate rewards-are associated with general life outcomes, psychopathology, and obesity. Here, we use machine learning on fMRI activity during an intertemporal choice task to develop a functional brain marker of these individual differences in human adults. Training and cross-validating the marker in one dataset (Study 1, N = 110 male adults) resulted in a significant prediction-outcome correlation (r = 0.49), generalized to predict individual differences in a completely independent dataset (Study 2: N = 145 male and female adults, r = 0.45), and predicted discounting several weeks later. Out-of-sample responses of the functional brain marker, but not discounting behavior itself, differed significantly between overweight and lean individuals in both studies, and predicted fasting-state blood levels of insulin, c-peptide, and leptin in Study 1. Significant predictive weights of the marker were found in cingulate, insula, and frontoparietal areas, among others, suggesting an interplay among regions associated with valuation, conflict processing, and cognitive control. This new functional brain marker is a step toward a generalizable brain model of individual differences in delay discounting. Future studies can evaluate it as a potential transdiagnostic marker of altered decision-making in different clinical and developmental populations.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT People differ substantially in how much they prefer smaller sooner rewards or larger later rewards such as spending money now versus saving it for retirement. These individual differences are generally stable over time and have been related to differences in mental and bodily health. What is their neurobiological basis? We applied machine learning to brain-imaging data to identify a novel brain activity pattern that accurately predicts how much people prefer sooner versus later rewards, and which can be used as a new brain-based measure of intertemporal decision-making in future studies. The resulting functional brain marker also predicts overweight and metabolism-related blood markers, providing new insight into the possible links between metabolism and the cognitive and brain processes involved in intertemporal decision-making.

How we decide what to eat: Toward an interdisciplinary model of gut-brain interactions

Everyday dietary decisions have important short‐term and long‐term consequences for health and well‐being. How do we decide what to eat, and what physiological and neurobiological systems are involved in those decisions? Here, we integrate findings from thus‐far separate literatures: (a) the cognitive neuroscience of dietary decision‐making, and (b) growing evidence of gut–brain interactions and especially influences of the gut microbiome on diet and health outcomes. We review findings that suggest that dietary decisions and food consumption influence nutrient sensing, homeostatic signaling in the gut, and the composition of the gut microbiome. In turn, the microbiome can influence host health and behavior. Through reward signaling pathways, the microbiome could potentially affect food and drink decisions. Such bidirectional links between gut microbiome and the brain systems underlying dietary decision‐making may lead to self‐reinforcing feedback loops that determine long‐term dietary patterns, body mass, and health outcomes.

This article is categorized under:

Economics > Individual Decision‐Making

Psychology > Brain Function and Dysfunction

Psychology > Reasoning and Decision Making

Resting-state connectivity within the brain's reward system predicts weight loss and correlates with leptin

Weight gain is often associated with the pleasure of eating food rich in calories. This idea is based on the findings that people with obesity showed increased neural activity in the reward and motivation systems of the brain in response to food cues. Such correlations, however, overlook the possibility that obesity may be associated with a metabolic state that impacts the functioning of reward and motivation systems, which in turn could be linked to reactivity to food and eating behaviour and weight gain. In a study involving 44 female participants [14 patients with obesity, aged 20–63 years (mean: 42, SEM: 3.2 years), and 30 matched lean controls, aged 22–60 years (mean: 37, SEM: 1.8 years)], we investigated how ventromedial prefrontal cortex seed-to-voxel resting-state connectivity distinguished between lean and obese participants at baseline. We used the results of this first step of our analyses to examine whether changes in ventromedial prefrontal cortex resting-state connectivity over 8 months could formally predict weight gain or loss. It is important to note that participants with obesity underwent bariatric surgery at the beginning of our investigation period. We found that ventromedial prefrontal cortex–ventral striatum resting-state connectivity and ventromedial–dorsolateral prefrontal cortex resting-state connectivity were sensitive to obesity at baseline. However, only the ventromedial prefrontal cortex–ventral striatum resting-state connectivity predicted weight changes over time using cross-validation, out-of-sample prediction analysis. Such an out-of-sample prediction analysis uses the data of all participants of a training set to predict the actually observed data in one independent participant in the hold-out validation sample and is then repeated for all participants. In seeking to explain the reason why ventromedial pre-frontal cortex–ventral striatum resting-state connectivity as the central hub of the brain’s reward and motivational system may predict weight change over time, we linked weight loss surgery-induced changes in ventromedial prefrontal cortex–ventral striatum resting-state connectivity to surgery-induced changes in homeostatic hormone regulation. More specifically, we focussed on changes in fasting state systemic leptin, a homeostatic hormone signalling satiety, and inhibiting reward-related dopamine signalling. We found that the surgery-induced increase in ventromedial prefrontal cortex–ventral striatum resting-state connectivity was correlated with a decrease in fasting-state systemic leptin. These findings establish the first link between individual differences in brain connectivity in reward circuits in a more tonic state at rest, weight change over time and homeostatic hormone regulation.

Single-dose testosterone administration increases men's preference for status goods

In modern human cultures where social hierarchies are ubiquitous, people typically signal their hierarchical position through consumption of positional goods-goods that convey one's social position, such as luxury products. Building on animal research and early correlational human studies linking the sex steroid hormone testosterone with hierarchical social interactions, we investigate the influence of testosterone on men's preferences for positional goods. Using a placebo-controlled experiment (N = 243) to measure individuals' desire for status brands and products, we find that administering testosterone increases men's preference for status brands, compared to brands of similar perceived quality but lower perceived status. Furthermore, testosterone increases positive attitudes toward positional goods when they are described as status-enhancing, but not when they are described as power-enhancing or high in quality. Our results provide novel causal evidence for the biological roots of men's preferences for status, bridging decades of animal behavioral studies with contemporary consumer research.

Consumer Neuroscience: Past, Present, and Future

In this article, we give an overview of the growing field of consumer neuroscience and discuss when and how it is useful to integrate neurophysiological data into research conducted in business fields. We first discuss the foundational elements of consumer neuroscience and showcase a range of studies that highlight the ways that neuroscientific research and theory can add to existing lines of research in marketing. Next, we discuss the new domains and questions that brain data allow us to address, such as an emerging ability to predict market-level behavior in a range of decision types. We conclude by providing insights about the emerging frontiers in the field that we think will have an important impact on our understanding of marketing behavior, as well as organizational behavior.

Context-dependency in valuation

In the last few years, work in the nascent field of neuroeconomics has advanced understanding of the brain systems involved in value-based decision making. An important modulator of valuation processes is the specific context a decision maker is facing during choice. Recently, neuroeconomics has made great progress in understanding, on both the brain and behavioral level, how context-dependent perception affects valuation and choice. Here we describe how context-sensitive value coding accounts for choice set effects, differential perceptions of gains and losses, and expectancy effects of external (economic) signals.

Cognitive regulation during decision making shifts behavioral control between ventromedial and dorsolateral prefrontal value systems

Cognitive regulation is often used to influence behavioral outcomes. However, the computational and neurobiological mechanisms by which it affects behavior remain unknown. We studied this issue using an fMRI task in which human participants used cognitive regulation to upregulate and downregulate their cravings for foods at the time of choice. We found that activity in both ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) correlated with value. We also found evidence that two distinct regulatory mechanisms were at work: value modulation, which operates by changing the values assigned to foods in vmPFC and dlPFC at the time of choice, and behavioral control modulation, which operates by changing the relative influence of the vmPFC and dlPFC value signals on the action selection process used to make choices. In particular, during downregulation, activation decreased in the value-sensitive region of dlPFC (indicating value modulation) but not in vmPFC, and the relative contribution of the two value signals to behavior shifted toward the dlPFC (indicating behavioral control modulation). The opposite pattern was observed during upregulation: activation increased in vmPFC but not dlPFC, and the relative contribution to behavior shifted toward the vmPFC. Finally, ventrolateral PFC and posterior parietal cortex were more active during both upregulation and downregulation, and were functionally connected with vmPFC and dlPFC during cognitive regulation, which suggests that they help to implement the changes to the decision-making circuitry generated by cognitive regulation.

[Food behaviour and obesity: insights from decision neuroscience]

Neuroimaging allows to estimate brain activity when individuals are doing something. The location and intensity of this estimated activity provides information on the dynamics and processes that guide choice behaviour and associated actions that should be considered a complement to behavioural studies. Decision neuroscience therefore sheds new light on whether the brain evaluates and compares alternatives when decisions are made, or if other processes are at stake. This work helped to demonstrate that the situations faced by individuals (risky, uncertain, delayed in time) do not all have the same (behavioural) complexity, and are not underlined by activity in the cerebral networks. Taking into account brain dynamics of people (suffering from obesity or not) when making food consumption decisions might allow for improved strategies in public health prevention, far from the rational choice theory promoted by neoclassical economics.

Dissociating valuation and saliency signals during decision-making

There is a growing consensus that the brain computes value and saliency-like signals at the time of decision-making. Value signals are essential for making choices. Saliency signals are related to motivation, attention, and arousal. Unfortunately, an unequivocal characterization of the areas involved in these 2 distinct sets of processes is made difficult by the fact that, in most experiments, both types of signals are highly correlated. We dissociated value and saliency signals using a novel human functional magnetic resonance imaging decision-making task. Activity in the medial orbitofrontal, rostral anterior cingulate, and posterior cingulate cortices was modulated by value but not saliency. The opposite was true for dorsal anterior cingulate, supplementary motor area, insula, and the precentral and fusiform gyri. Only the ventral striatum and the cuneus were modulated by both value and saliency.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex decreases valuations during food choices

Several studies have found decision-making-related value signals in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). However, it is unknown whether the DLPFC plays a causal role in decision-making, or whether it implements computations that are correlated with valuations, but that do not participate in the valuation process itself. We addressed this question by using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) while subjects were involved in an economic valuation task involving the consumption of real foods. We found that, as compared with a control condition, application of rTMS to the right DLPFC caused a decrease in the values assigned to the stimuli. The results are consistent with the possibility that the DLPFC plays a causal role in the computation of values at the time of choice.

Orbitofrontal cortex encodes willingness to pay in everyday economic transactions

An essential component of every economic transaction is a willingness-to-pay (WTP) computation in which buyers calculate the maximum amount of financial resources that they are willing to give up in exchange for the object being sold. Despite its pervasiveness, little is known about how the brain makes this computation. We investigated the neural basis of the WTP computation by scanning hungry subjects' brains using functional magnetic resonance imaging while they placed real bids for the right to eat different foods. We found that activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex and in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex encodes subjects' WTP for the items. Our results support the hypothesis that the medial orbitofrontal cortex encodes the value of goals in decision making.

Anterior cingulate reflects susceptibility to framing during attractiveness evaluation

Human cognitive decisions can be strongly susceptible to the manner in which options are presented ('framing effect'). Here we investigated the neural basis of response adjustments induced by changing frames during intuitive decisions. Evidence exists that the anterior cingulate cortex plays a general role in behavioral adjustments. We hypothesized, therefore, that the anterior cingulate cortex is also involved in the 'framing effect'. Our hypothesis was tested by using a binary attractiveness judgment task ('liking' versus 'nonliking') during functional magnetic resonance imaging. We found that the framing-related anterior cingulate cortex activity predicted how strongly susceptible an individual was to a biased response. Our results support the hypothesis that paralimbic processes are crucial for predicting an individual's susceptibility to framing.

Evidence for a neural correlate of a framing effect: Bias-specific activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex during credibility judgments

BACKGROUND

Neural processes within the medial prefrontal cortex play a crucial role in assessing and integrating emotional and other implicit information during decision-making. Phylogenetically, it was important for the individual to assess the relevance of all kinds of environmental stimuli in order to adapt behavior in a flexible manner. Consequently, we can in principle not exclude that environmental information covertly influences the evaluation of actually decision relevant facts ("framing effect").

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that the medial prefrontal cortex is involved into a framing effect we employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during a binary credibility judgment task.

METHODS

Twenty-one subjects were asked to judge 30 normalized news magazine headlines by forced answers as "true" or "false". To confound the judgments by formally irrelevant framing information we presented each of the headlines in four different news magazines characterized by varying credibility. For each subject the susceptibility to the judgment confounder (framing information) was assessed by magazine-specific modifications of the answers given.

RESULTS

We could show that individual activity changes of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex during the judgments correlate with the degree of an individual's susceptibility to the framing information.

CONCLUSION

We found (i) a neural correlate of a framing effect as postulated by behavioral decision theorists that (ii) reflects interindividual differences in the degree of the susceptibility to framing information.

Neuroeconomics: an overview from an economic perspective

Until now, economic theory has not systematically integrated the influence of emotions on decision-making. Since evidence from neuroscience suggests that decision-making as hypothesized in economic theory depends on prior emotional processing, interdisciplinary research under the label of "neuroeconomics" arose. The key idea of this approach is to employ recent neuroscientific methods in order to analyze economically relevant brain processes. This paper aims to provide an overview of the current state of neuroeconomic research by giving a brief description of the concept of neuroeconomics, outlining methods commonly used and describing current studies in this new research area. Finally, some future prospects and limitations are discussed.

Nonlinear responses within the medial prefrontal cortex reveal when specific implicit information influences economic decision making

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The authors used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate how individual economic decisions are influenced by implicit memory contributions.

METHODS

Twenty-two participants were asked to make binary decisions between different brands of sensorily nearly undistinguishable consumer goods. Changes of brain activity comparing decisions in the presence or absence of a specific target brand were detected by fMRI.

RESULTS

Only when the tar get brand was the participant's favorite one did the authors find reduced activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal, posterior parietal, and occipital cortices and the left premotor area (Brodmann areas [BA] 9, 46, 7/19, and 6). Simultaneously, activity was increased in the inferior precuneus and posterior cingulate (BA 7), right superior frontal gyrus (BA 10), right supramarginal gyrus (BA 40), and, most pronounced, in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (BA 10).

CONCLUSIONS

For products mainly distinguishable by brand information, the authors revealed a nonlinear winner-take-all effect for a participant's favorite brand characterized, on one hand, by reduced activation in brain areas associated with working memory and reasoning and, on the other hand, increased activation in areas involved in processing of emotions and self-reflections during decision making.