Validation of the type 1 diabetes distress scale (T1-DDS) in a large Danish cohort: Content validation and psychometric properties

Aim

To validate the Type 1 Diabetes Distress Scale (T1-DDS) in a large sample of adults with Type 1 diabetes (T1D) from diabetes clinics in Denmark.

Methods

Altogether 40 adults with T1D were interviewed to explore the content of T1-DDS in a Danish setting and to validate the translation of the T1-DDS into Danish. Subsequently, a survey including T1-DDS, the Problem Areas In Diabetes scale (PAID-20), fear of hypoglycemia, social support, and diabetes duration was answered by 2201 people with T1D. Other person characteristics were collected from the National Patient Register. HbA1c was obtained from the Clinical Laboratory Information System. Data distribution, internal consistency, convergent and construct validity, factor structure, three weeks retest, and cut-points were explored.

Results

Interview data supported the relevance of all T1-DDS items for the assessment of diabetes distress among adults with T1D. The T1-DDS showed good content and acceptable construct validity, and the ability to detect high diabetes distress levels. A high correlation between T1-DDS and PAID-20 (rho = 0.91) was found. The retest scores showed a good reliability (all rho ≥0.68) with the highest variability in the Friends/Family Distress and Physician Distress subscales and the lowest variability in the Powerlessness and Eating Distress subscales of the T1-DDS. Qualitative findings pointed out relevant concerns of people with T1D, which were not included in the T1-DDS.

Conclusion

The study supports the use of the Danish T1-DDS, but also highlights that existing diabetes distress questionnaires including T1-DDS do not cover all potential diabetes stressors and worries.

Achieving a useful and person-centred diabetes consultation is a shared responsibility between diabetologists and people with diabetes: a qualitative study of perspectives from people with type 1 diabetes

AIMS

To explore perceptions of useful routine consultations with diabetologists from the perspective of adults with type 1 diabetes, including preferences for discussing psychosocial issues.

METHODS

We conducted semi-structured interviews in 2018/2019 with 33 people with type 1 diabetes (age 22-75 years, 20 men and 13 women, median diabetes duration 25 years) recruited from two diabetes clinics in the capital region of Denmark. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic text condensation.

RESULTS

Achieving a useful consultation was perceived as a shared responsibility between people with diabetes and diabetologists. Participants' perspectives of what constitutes a useful consultation and expectations for both consultation and diabetologist varied in relation to perceptions of (1) the interaction between the person with diabetes and diabetologist, including being prepared, being honest, experiencing good rapport and preferring a partnership with the diabetologist or 'keeping it clinical' and (2) the diabetologist's approach to diabetes care, including providing up-to-date knowledge and listening and showing understanding.

CONCLUSIONS

Both content and style of diabetes consultations need to be adapted to the individual person with type 1 diabetes. People with diabetes have an important role in expressing their needs and preferences related to both content and style. Diabetologists need to be aware of and attentive to the many individual needs and expectations among people with diabetes, including the desire and need to discuss psychosocial issues. Dialogue tools for preparation and in consultations may enable people with diabetes to voice their needs and expectations and diabetologists to juggle these diversities.

Psychosocial factors associated with HbA1c in adults with insulin pump-treated type 1 diabetes: a systematic review

AIMS

To identify currently available studies on the association between psychosocial factors and HbA_1c in adults with insulin pump-treated type 1 diabetes, by performing a systematic review of the literature.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL and PsycINFO were searched for original studies on the association between psychosocial factors and HbA_1c in ≥ 50 adult, non-pregnant, insulin pump users with type 1 diabetes.

RESULTS

The search resulted in 1777 unique records, of which eight were eligible for inclusion. All identified studies were observational, with sample sizes ranging from 51 to 214. Seven different psychosocial factors were investigated in the eight studies. Study analysis suggested that HbA_1c may be associated with diabetes numeracy and quality of life. There were no indications of associations between HbA_1c and fear of hypoglycaemia or self-efficacy. Results regarding associations between HbA_1c and coping style, diabetes distress and locus of control were inconsistent.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review summarizes the currently limited information on the association between psychosocial factors and HbA_1c during insulin pump therapy. The evidence base of the included studies was weak, and this review highlights the need for more research in these areas, with improved methodological and theoretical frameworks, including exploration of a broader spectrum of psychosocial variables and their potential association with HbA_1c and other metabolic outcomes. (PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews registration no: CRD42020145705).

Diabetes and COVID-19: psychosocial consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic in people with diabetes in Denmark-what characterizes people with high levels of COVID-19-related worries?

AIM

To map COVID-19-specific worries and overall psychosocial health among people with diabetes in the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark, and to explore characteristics of people with diabetes and high levels of worries related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted by distributing online questionnaires to 2430 adult members (> 18 years) of two user panels consisting of people with diabetes who have volunteered to share information about their life with diabetes. The questionnaire included items on COVID-19-specific worries as well as such worries related to diabetes, sociodemographic and health status, social relations, diabetes-specific social support, diabetes distress and changes in diabetes-specific behaviours. Responses were analysed with descriptive statistics and logistic regressions.

RESULTS

People with diabetes have COVID-19-specific worries related to their diabetes. More than half were worried about being overly affected due to diabetes if infected with COVID-19, about one-third about being characterized as a risk group due to diabetes and not being able to manage diabetes if infected. Logistic regressions showed that being female, having type 1 diabetes, diabetes complications and diabetes distress, feeling isolated and lonely, and having changed diabetes behaviours were associated with being more worried about COVID-19 and diabetes.

CONCLUSION

People with diabetes have COVID-19-specific worries related to their diabetes which is associated with poorer psychosocial health. These worries should be addressed through support targeting specific questions and needs of individuals with diabetes as well as frequent updates on new knowledge regarding COVID-19 and diabetes.

State of the art: understanding and integration of the social context in diabetes care

We review the past 25 years of research addressing challenges people living with diabetes experience in their daily lives related to social contexts, i.e. in their family, at work and in society at large, and identify research gaps. We found that young people with diabetes, as they develop through to adulthood, are exposed to considerable risks to their physical and mental health. Family-system interventions have had mixed outcomes. Research in this area would benefit from attention to ethnic/cultural diversity, and involving fathers and other family members. In adults with diabetes, social support relates to better diabetes outcomes. While family member involvement in care is likely to affect health and psychosocial outcomes of the person with diabetes, key elements and mediators of effective family interventions need to be identified. The challenges of diabetes management at work are under-researched; distress and intentional hyperglycaemia are common. When depression is comorbid with diabetes, there are increased work-related risks, e.g. unemployment, sickness absence and reduced income. Research to support people with diabetes at work should involve colleagues and employers to raise awareness and create supportive environments. Stigma and discrimination have been found to be more common than previously acknowledged, affecting self-care, well-being and access to health services. Guidance on stigma-reducing choice of language has been published recently. Resilience, defined as successful adaptation to adversity such as stigma and discrimination, requires studies relevant to the specific challenges of diabetes, whether at diagnosis or subsequently. The importance of the social context for living well with diabetes is now fully recognized, but understanding of many of the challenges, whether at home or work, is still limited, with much work needed to develop successful interventions.

Discrimination and stigma among people with type 2 diabetes in the workplace: prejudice against illness or obesity?

OBJECTIVES

Both obesity/overweight and type 2 diabetes (T2D) have been independently identified as being the basis for stigma and discrimination in the workplace. The study sought to test the hypothesis that people with T2D are at increased risk of discrimination and adverse self-reported psychosocial work environment.

STUDY DESIGN

This study was based on survey data from 2415 working Danes with T2D (n = 586) and without T2D (n = 1829) recruited from online panels. Single self-reported items were used to obtain information about diabetes status, exposure to discrimination and other individual factors.

METHODS

Descriptive statistics and linear regression were used for the data analysis.

RESULTS

Six percent of the participants with T2D had experienced some type of discrimination at work, which was ascribed to their diabetes. People with diabetes had higher levels of effort-reward imbalance. When adjusting for body mass index, differences in relation to effort-reward imbalance were accounted for.

CONCLUSIONS

People with T2D reported relatively poor psychosocial working environment compared with the general working population, but the difference was removed by adjusting for overweight/obesity. This indicates that T2D alone is not a source of stigma and discrimination in the context of work. Levels of perceived discrimination were notably lower than expected among people with diabetes as a whole, but a number of people, nonetheless, continue to be exposed to the destructive effects of discrimination in the context of work.

Time preferences, diabetes self-management behaviours and outcomes: a systematic review

AIM

Time preferences, i.e. individuals' degree of patience/impatience in intertemporal choice, have been found to be associated with suboptimal health behaviours and health outcomes such as smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy food intake and obesity. In this systematic review, we aimed to synthesise reported associations between time preferences, diabetes self-management behaviours, including use of diabetes technology, and outcomes.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, EconLit and all databases in the Web of Science Core Collection. Peer-reviewed studies of people with diabetes that included at least one diabetes-related behaviour or outcome and a measure of time preferences were included. Non-English language studies were excluded.

RESULTS

A total of 961 records were identified, of which 12 articles were included. Three studies analysed both time-consistent and time-inconsistent preferences, three studies solely analysed time-inconsistent preferences and six studies did not explicitly define a time preference model. Measured outcomes across studies included self-care activities, such as medication-taking, exercising and eating a healthy diet, and biomedical outcomes, such as HbA_1c and diabetes-related complications. There were 10 cross-sectional studies and two panel-data studies. No studies explicitly analysed the relationship between time preferences and diabetes technology use.

CONCLUSIONS

Associations between measures of time preferences, diabetes self-management behaviours and clinical outcomes exist. Higher discount rates determined by both time-consistent and time-inconsistent models predict less diabetes-related self-care and worse outcomes. These findings may add to explanations of the observed variation in diabetes-related health and provide new insights for tailoring interventions and policies aimed at improving diabetes self-management.

Integrating psychosocial support into routine diabetes care: perspectives from participants at the Self-Management Alliance meeting 2016

AIMS

To identify challenges and solutions to integrating psychosocial support into routine diabetes care from the perspective of stakeholders with expertise in diabetes self-management education and support.

METHODS

Ninety-four people attended the annual international Diabetes Self-Management Alliance meeting in 2016, which included plenary sessions and workshops on self-management education, support and prevention. One workshop focused on how to integrate psychosocial support into routine diabetes care; this was run four times consecutively, allowing all conference participants to attend the workshops in groups of 20-25 people.

RESULTS

Challenges and solutions associated with integrating psychosocial support into routine diabetes care concern the patient-provider relationship, the healthcare system and the community. Challenges identified were: lack of time, skills and resources to deal with psychological well-being; a culture of patient blame and care expectations; the complexity of person-centred assessment of psychological issues; and the substantial healthcare system focus on productivity and biomedical indicators. Lack of involvement of local communities and of inclusion of social determinants of health were also highlighted as challenging. Solutions identified were more patient-provider dialogue; more training and better skills among care providers; system incentives for psychosocial outcomes; and targeting social determinants of health and involvement of family and peers.

CONCLUSIONS

From the perspective of international stakeholders with an expertise in diabetes self-management and support attending the conference in Denmark, substantial new incentives and systematic cultural changes are needed in healthcare systems to integrate psychosocial support into routine diabetes care, as recommended in international guidelines.

Learning about Type 1 diabetes and learning to live with it when diagnosed in adulthood: two distinct but inter-related psychological processes of adaptation A qualitative longitudinal study

AIM

To explore the experiences of adults with newly diagnosed Type 1 diabetes in order to understand the adaptive processes that occur in the early phase of the condition.

METHODS

We conducted longitudinal semi-structured interviews with 30 adults newly diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes (age range 20-67 years; 16 men; median diabetes duration 23.5 months), recruited from hospitals in Denmark and the UK. The data were analysed using a narrative approach.

RESULTS

The narratives could be grouped into three thematic areas: the diagnosis; learning about diabetes; and learning to live with diabetes. Diabetes was characterized as a major disruptor to the established and future life plans of participants, causing significant emotional distress. The narratives showed how early experiences triggered the development of ongoing psychological problems (fear of complications or hypoglycaemia) and diabetes distress, and that navigating different social scenarios (relationships and employment) could be challenging, leading to suboptimal self-management behaviours. The narratives also showed that health professionals often did not attend effectively to participants' emotional needs after diagnosis, and that the language used frequently triggered negative feelings, such as fear or a sense of failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Many of the common psychosocial problems associated with Type 1 diabetes seem to gestate in the early phase of life with the condition. There appear to be opportunities to enhance the support provided in this phase to minimize these problems.

Emerging adulthood and Type 1 diabetes: insights from the DAWN2 Study

AIMS

To compare clinical, psychological, education and social variables in emerging adults (aged 18-30 years) with Type 1 diabetes with their adult counterparts aged >30 years.

METHODS

A single assessment multinational sample was surveyed as part of the larger second Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes and Needs (DAWN2) study. Participants completed a series of surveys incorporating demographic as well as clinical questions (comorbidities, hypoglycaemia) and validated self-report scales concerning psychosocial (health impact, quality of life, beliefs and attitudes, self-management behaviours, healthcare experience and family support) and diabetes education factors.

RESULTS

Emerging adults differed from adults aged >30 years with regard to a number of psychosocial variables. Emerging adults reported better overall quality of life, social support and support from their healthcare team compared with adults aged >30 years of age; however, emerging adults experienced greater diabetes-specific distress and were less engaged in self-management. Diabetes education was related to a number of indicators, while experience of discrimination was harmful, but these impacts did not differ between emerging adults and adults aged >30 years. An analysis of geographical regions suggested that emerging adults in North America and Europe had better well-being than older adults, while the opposite was observed in Asia.

CONCLUSIONS

Emerging adults, particularly those in the later phase (ages 25-30 years) are especially at risk in terms of diabetes-specific distress. There is a need for novel interventions to meet the needs of these vulnerable emerging adults more effectively.

Willingness to pay for flexible working conditions of people with type 2 diabetes: discrete choice experiments

BACKGROUND

The increasing number of people with chronic diseases challenges workforce capacity. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) can have work-related consequences, such as early retirement. Laws of most high-income countries require workplaces to provide accommodations to enable people with chronic disabilities to manage their condition at work. A barrier to successful implementation of such accommodations can be lack of co-workers' willingness to support people with T2D. This study aimed to examine the willingness to pay (WTP) of people with and without T2D for five workplace initiatives that help individuals with type 2 diabetes manage their diabetes at work.

METHODS

Three samples with employed Danish participants were drawn from existing online panels: a general population sample (n = 600), a T2D sample (n = 693), and a matched sample of people without diabetes (n = 539). Participants completed discrete choice experiments eliciting their WTP (reduction in monthly salary, €/month) for five hypothetical workplace initiatives: part-time job, customized work, extra breaks with pay, and time off for medical consultations with and without pay. WTP was estimated by conditional logits models. Bootstrapping was used to estimate confidence intervals for WTP.

RESULTS

There was an overall WTP for all initiatives. Average WTP for all attributes was 34 €/month (95% confidence interval [CI]: 27-43] in the general population sample, 32 €/month (95% CI: 26-38) in the T2D sample, and 55 €/month (95% CI: 43-71) in the matched sample. WTP for additional breaks with pay was considerably lower than for the other initiatives in all samples. People with T2D had significantly lower WTP than people without diabetes for part-time work, customized work, and time off without pay, but not for extra breaks or time off with pay.

CONCLUSIONS

For people with and without T2D, WTP was present for initiatives that could improve management of diabetes at the workplace. WTP was lowest among people with T2D. Implementation of these initiatives seems feasible and may help unnecessary exclusion of people with T2D from work.

Characteristics associated with non-disclosure of Type 2 diabetes at work

AIM

To explore factors associated with non-disclosure of Type 2 diabetes to employers among Danish workers with Type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

A total of 705 workers with Type 2 diabetes completed a Danish cross-sectional survey. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the associations between background characteristics and probability of non-disclosure of diabetes to the employer. The models were mutually adjusted for background characteristics, socioeconomic-, diabetes- and work-related factors.

RESULTS

Among the participants, 23% had not disclosed their Type 2 diabetes to their current employer. Non-disclosure was associated with more sickness absence, more years with diabetes, greater use of diabetic medication, higher educational level and a perception of not being respected by superior. Personal traits such as gender, age and well-being were not associated with disclosure.

CONCLUSIONS

Among the feasible targets for interventions, good psychosocial work environment was associated with disclosure.

Deficiencies in postgraduate training for healthcare professionals who provide diabetes education and support: results from the Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes and Needs (DAWN2) study

AIMS

To consider the global provision of self-management diabetes education and training for healthcare professionals using data from the second Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes and Needs (DAWN2) study.

METHODS

A total of 4785 healthcare professionals caring for people with diabetes were surveyed in 17 countries to assess diabetes healthcare provision, self-management support and training.

RESULTS

Of the healthcare professionals surveyed, 33.5% received formal postgraduate training in self-management (19.3-51.4% across countries) and 62.9% received training for medical management of diabetes (47.6-70.6% variation). Training in psychological management was low (19.1%), ranging from 3.6 to 36.5%, while 20.4% (a range of 3.6-36.4% across countries) had received no postgraduate training. Overall, the greatest training need was in the management of psychological aspects of diabetes (59.5%). For some, training in a domain was positively associated with a perceived need for further training. Communication skills, for example, listening (76.9%) and encouraging questions (76.1%), were the skills most widely used. Discussion of emotional issues was limited; 31-60% of healthcare professionals across the different countries reported that this only occurred if initiated by patients. Approximately two-thirds of participants reported a need for major improvements in emotional/psychological support, but few had received training in this area, with consistent findings across professional affiliations.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study shows that healthcare professionals report being insufficiently equipped to provide diabetes self-management education, including emotional and psychological aspects of diabetes, and many are not receiving postgraduate training in any part (including medical care) of the management of diabetes. It is paramount that those responsible for the continuing professional development of healthcare professionals address this skills gap.

Diabetes and depression in Denmark 1996-2010: national data stratified by occupational status and annual income

AIMS

To assess the socio-economic distribution of comorbid depression and diabetes among the Danish workforce using national registry data.

METHODS

Using national registers, all eligible Danish adults aged 18-59 years on 1 January 1996 were followed until 31 December 2010. Diabetes status was obtained from the Danish National Diabetes Register and information on purchase of prescription antidepressants from the Register of Medicinal Product Statistics. Data were also obtained on people's occupational status and gross annual income. The people included in the study were stratified according to their highest occupational group during the study period. Annual incomes were adjusted to 2013 levels and, using the distribution of the study population's incomes, we stratified participants into income quintiles.

RESULTS

A total of 3 434 420 individuals met the inclusion criteria at baseline, with 98 006 developing diabetes during follow-up. There were 603 498 new prescriptions of antidepressants during follow-up; 19 849 (20.3%) among people with diabetes and 583 649 (17.5%) among those without. People with diabetes in all income quintiles (risk ratio 1.65; 95% CI 1.62-1.67) and all occupational groups (risk ratio 1.70; 95% CI 1.68- 1.73) had a significantly elevated risk compared with the general population. Risk ratios were significantly higher among the lowest occupational groups and income quintiles.

CONCLUSION

Our results provide robust data underlining the associations between diabetes, depression and socio-economic status. They highlight and encourage further focus on the issue of comorbid diabetes and depression, particularly among the most disadvantaged.

Barriers to and motivators for physical activity among people with Type 2 diabetes: patients' perspectives

AIM

To explore barriers to and motivators for physical activity in a group of overweight and obese individuals with dysregulated Type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Data were collected from the Steno Diabetes Center's outpatient clinic in Denmark. Four focus groups were conducted including 28 individuals with Type 2 diabetes aged 39-71 years. The facilitators used open-ended questions and probes such as images, statements and quotations about physical activity to foster active participation and interaction among participants. Focus groups were recorded on video and the discussions were transcribed and analysed thematically.

RESULTS

We identified four main themes: 1) the body as a barrier to physical activity because of functional limitations; 2) logistical challenges, including lack of time and awareness of where to exercise in the local area; 3) being physically active with others, providing a sense of mutual commitment and enjoyment; and 4) goal-setting and self-tracking, which was seen as an opportunity to track physical improvement over time.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that, once people are active, a high level of social interaction may help maintain their activity levels. Further research is needed to investigate the effect of combining individually tailored exercise plans with the establishment of customized and locally based exercise communities that offer enjoyment and support. Additionally, it is relevant to explore experiences of using self-tracking technologies to review short- and long-term goals.

Lost in translation--the role of family in interventions among adults with diabetes: a systematic review

AIMS

Family interventions are increasingly recognized as important in the care of people with diabetes. The aim of this study was to synthesize the existing literature on family interventions among adults with Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes and to determine the degree to which they were family centred.

METHODS

The literature search was carried out in four databases (Scopus, CINAHL, PsycINFO and ERIC). Two reviewers independently screened the search results. Only English-language articles about interventions on education, care and/or support of adult individuals with diabetes involving the participation of both the individual with diabetes and at least one family member were included.

RESULTS

From an initial 1480 citations, 10 reports were included. The intervention studies varied considerably in terms of design and population. The family dimension generally represented a modest part of the interventions: Two interventions applied a family-relevant theoretical framework. Disease knowledge and lifestyle changes were more prevalent intervention themes than family issues. Biological and behavioural outcomes were most prevalent, whereas psychosocial and family outcomes were used in six of the studies.

CONCLUSIONS

The number of trials and statistically significant results in family interventions targeting adults with diabetes is limited. Because of inhomogeneity, it is difficult to come to a conclusion on effective approaches in family interventions. The interventions are inconsistent with regard to theoretical framework, intervention themes and measured outcomes. However, psychosocial and familial dimensions seem sensitive to family-based interventions. From development to evaluation, the family dimension needs to be included to prove the specific effect of family interventions.

Diabetes distress in Type 1 diabetes--a new measurement fit for purpose

AIMS

To examine and assess (1) the internal consistency and validity of a Danish translation of the Diabetes Distress Scale (DDS17) among adults with Type 1 diabetes mellitus, (2) the properties of the brief version of DDS17 and (3) cut points for the DDS17.

METHODS

Cross-sectional survey of 2419 adults with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Validated scales and questions measured diabetes distress (DDS17), diabetes empowerment (DES-SF), healthy diet, physical activity, self-rated health (SF-12) and quality of life (WHOQoL-BREF). An electronic patient record provided information about glycaemic control (HbA(1c)). We examined internal consistency, construct validity, subscale construction and cut points for determining clinically relevant diabetes distress, as well as two- and four-item brief versions of the DDS17.

RESULTS

The DDS17 had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.92; subscale alphas were 0.83-0.89. A four-factor division into subscales was appropriate and the division corresponded closely to the four domains described in the development of the DDS17. The DDS17 correlated well with relevant measures; higher distress was correlated with low diabetes empowerment, low quality of life, unhealthy diet, not being physically active, poor glycaemic control and low scores on the mental component score of the SF-12. A two-item brief scale performed as well as a four-item version. The relationship between DDS17 and outcomes did not suggest distinct cut points for DDS17.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide support for the use of this Danish adaptation of the DDS17 for assessing psychosocial distress among adults with Type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes and Needs second study (DAWN2™): cross-national benchmarking indicators for family members living with people with diabetes

AIMS

The second Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes and Needs (DAWN2) study examined the experiences of family members of people with diabetes for benchmarking and identifying unmet needs or areas for improvement to assist family members and those with diabetes to effectively self-manage.

METHODS

In total, 2057 family members of people with diabetes participated in an online, telephone or in-person survey designed to assess the impact of diabetes on family life, family support for people with diabetes and educational and community support.

RESULTS

Supporting a relative with diabetes was perceived as a burden by 35.3% (range across countries 10.6-61.7%) of respondents. Over half of respondents [51.4% (22.5-76.0%)] rated their quality of life as 'good' or 'very good'. However, distress about the person with diabetes was high, with 61.3% (31.5-86.4%) worried about hypoglycaemia. The impact of diabetes on aspects of life was felt by 51.8% (46.9-58.6%). The greatest negative effect was on emotional well-being [44.6% (31.8-63.0%)], although depression was less common [11.6% (4.2-20.0%)]. Many respondents did not know how to help the person with diabetes [37.1% (17.5-53.0%)] and wanted to be more involved in their care [39.4% (15.5-61.7%)]. Participation in diabetes educational programmes was low [23.1% (9.4-43.3%)], although most of those who participated found them helpful [72.1% (42.1-90.3%)].

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetes has a negative impact on family members of people with diabetes. DAWN2 provides benchmarking indicators of family members' psychosocial needs that will help identify the support required for, and from, them to improve the lives of people with diabetes and their families.

Recall of HbA1c and self-management behaviours, patient activation, perception of care and diabetes distress in Type 2 diabetes

AIMS

The aim of this study was to investigate associations between HbA1c recall by patients with Type 2 diabetes and self-management behaviours, patient activation, perception of care and diabetes distress.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional survey, 993 patients with Type 2 diabetes reported their latest HbA(1c). Validated scales measured self-management behaviours, patient activation, perception of care and diabetes distress. Self-reported HbA(1c) was compared with latest measured HbA(1c). Using logistic regressions, associations between HbA(1c) recall and the variables of interest were investigated.

RESULTS

Sixty-four per cent of patients recalled their latest HbA(1c). Poor HbA(1c) recall was significantly associated with unhealthy eating behaviour, low level of exercise, low level of patient activation, poor glycaemic control, not knowing target HbA(1c) level, low educational level and being female. There were no associations between recall of HbA(1c) and diabetes distress or perceived care.

CONCLUSIONS

Recall of HbA(1c) level may increase patient activation and health-promoting behaviours. However, low educational level may be a barrier for using HbA(1c) as a motivator for health-promoting behaviours. This study indicates a need for studies of causal relationships, as well as mechanisms and challenges in using patient awareness of HbA(1c) as a driver for health-promoting behaviours.

Patient factors and glycaemic control--associations and explanatory power

AIMS

To investigate the association between glycaemic control and patient socio-demographics, activation level, diabetes-related distress, assessment of care, knowledge of target HbA(1c), and self-management behaviours, and to determine to what extent these factors explain the variance in HbA(1c) in a large Danish population of patients with Type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Cross-sectional survey and record review of 2045 patients from a specialist diabetes clinic. Validated scales measured patient activation, self-management behaviours, diabetes-related emotional distress, and perceived care. The electronic patient record provided information about HbA(1c), medication, body mass index, and duration of diabetes. Data were analysed using multiple linear regression models with stepwise addition of covariates.

RESULTS

The response rate was 54% (n = 1081). Good glycaemic control was significantly associated with older age, higher education, higher patient activation, lower diabetes-related emotional distress, better diet and exercise behaviours, lower body mass index, shorter duration of disease and knowledge of HbA(1c) targets (P < 0.05 for all). Patient socio-demographics, behaviour; perceptions of care and diabetes distress accounted for 14% of the total variance in HbA(1c) levels (P = 0.0134), but the variance explained was higher for respondents treated with medications other than insulin.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study emphasizes the complex relationships between patient activation, distress and behaviour, specific treatment modalities and glycaemic control. Knowledge of treatment goals, achieving patient activation in coping with diabetes, and lowering disease-related emotional stress are important patient education goals. However, the large unexplained component of HbA(1c) variance highlights the need for more research to understand the mechanisms of glycaemic control.

Social support and self-management behaviour among patients with Type 2 diabetes

AIMS

To investigate the relationship between structural and functional social support and patient activation, diabetes-related emotional distress, perceived diabetes care, self-management behaviour and HbA(1c) levels among patients with Type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Self-administered questionnaires were collected from 2572 patients with Type 2 diabetes. After adjusting for gender, age and education, Tobit and logistic regression models were used to examine associations between social network and patient activation, psychosocial problems, self-management behaviours and HbA(1c) levels.

RESULTS

Frequent contact with friends was associated with more positive scores for activation, fewer psychosocial problems, more positive assessment of care and health-promoting self-management behaviours such as frequent exercising and frequent foot examinations. Frequent contact with family was associated with more positive assessments of care. Living with a partner was associated with lower prevalence of smoking, a higher frequency of foot examinations and higher HbA(1c) levels. A poor functional social network, measured as perceived lack of help in the event of severe illness, was associated with low patient activation, greater emotional distress, negative assessment of care, less health-promoting eating habits and less frequent foot examinations.

CONCLUSIONS

Good social support is significantly associated with health-promoting behaviours and well-being among patients with Type 2 diabetes. However, HbA(1c) levels are higher for cohabitant persons, indicating barriers for social support. Intervention research is needed to investigate the causal relationship between social networks and health-promoting behaviours. This knowledge should be used in clinical practice when targeting and designing education, support and care for patients with Type 2 diabetes.