Ethnomedicinal, Chemical, and Biological Aspects of Lannea Species-A Review

Lannea L. genus belongs to the Anacardiaceae botanical family and has long been used in traditional medicinal systems of many countries to manage several health conditions, but no studies have been conducted regarding its usefulness as a source of herbal medicine for human use. A literature review was conducted on scientific papers indexed on B-On, Pubmed, and Web of Science databases. Our results showed that medicinal plants from this botanical genus, mostly constituted by bark and leaf, are often used to approach a wide variety of disease symptoms, like fever, inflammatory states, pain, and gastrointestinal disorders. Phytochemical profiles of Lannea species revealed that phenolic acid derivatives including hydroquinones, phenolic acids, flavonoids, condensed tannins, and triterpenoids are the main classes of secondary metabolites present. Among the total of 165 identified compounds, 57 (34.5%) are flavonoids, mostly quercetin- and myricetin-derived flavonols and catechin and epicatechin flavan-3-ol derivatives also containing a galloyl group. In vitro and in vivo studies allowed the identification of 12 different biological activities, amongst which antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities were the most frequently cited and observed in in vitro essays. Our review contributes useful information for the scientifical validation of the use of Lannea species in traditional medicinal systems and shows that more research needs to be conducted to better understand the concrete utility of these as herbal medicines.

Quality, Safety and Biological Studies on Campylanthus glaber Aerial Parts

In Cabo Verde, several endemic species are used in traditional medicine. However, no scientific studies have been conducted on the quality, efficacy, and safety of most of these plants. This study focused on establishing the botanical and chemical identification parameters required for a quality monograph of Campylanthus glaber Benth. aerial parts, a medicinal plant of Cabo Verde traditionally used to treat fever and muscular pain. In addition, in vitro antioxidant and antihyperglycemic activity, cytotoxicity, and genotoxicity were assessed for this medicinal plant. Optical microscopy, LC/UV-DAD-ESI/MS, and colorimetric assays were used for botanical, chemical, and biological studies, respectively. Cytotoxicity was assessed by the MTT assay with HepG2 cells, and genotoxicity by the Ames test. Microscopically, the xeromorphic leaf of C. glaber presents a thick cuticle (13.6-25.5 µm), thick-walled epidermal cells, anomocytic-type stomata, glandular trichomes (stalk length = 49.4-120.8 µm), and idioblasts containing calcium oxalate microcrystals. The chemical screening of aqueous and hydroethanolic extracts of this medicinal plant revealed the presence of organic acids, iridoids, phenylethanoids, and flavonoids as the main classes of marker compounds, with malic acid, citric acid, and verbascoside being the main marker compounds identified. Both extracts showed similar LC/UV-DAD/ESI-MS qualitative profiles and DPPH radical scavenger activity (IC50 = 130.9 ± 1.4; 134.3 ± 3.1 µg/mL). The hydroethanolic extract inhibited both α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes in a dose-dependent manner. Both extracts showed no cytotoxicity (up to 1000 µg/mL) by the MTT assay and no genotoxic potential with or without metabolic activation up to 5 mg /plate. The results obtained are an important contribution to the monographic quality assessment of C. glaber aerial parts and suggest that this medicinal plant may be safe and potentially used as an herbal drug raw material for pharmaceutical purposes.

Bioguided Identification of Active Antimicrobial Compounds from Asphodelus bento-rainhae and Asphodelus macrocarpus Root Tubers

Root tubers of Asphodelus bento-rainhae subsp. bento-rainhae (AbR), a vulnerable endemic species, and Asphodelus macrocarpus subsp. macrocarpus (AmR) have traditionally been used in Portugal to treat inflammatory and infectious skin disorders. The present study aims to evaluate the in vitro antimicrobial activity of crude 70% and 96% hydroethanolic extracts of both medicinal plants, specifically against multidrug-resistant skin-related pathogens, to identify the involved marker secondary metabolites and also to assess the pre-clinical toxicity of these medicinal plant extracts. Bioguided fractionation of the 70% hydroethanolic extracts of both species using solvents of increasing polarity, namely diethyl ether (DEE: AbR-1, AmR-1), ethyl acetate (AbR-2, AmR-2) and aqueous (AbR-3, AmR-3) fractions, enabled the identification of the DEE fractions as the most active against all the tested Gram-positive microorganisms (MIC: 16 to 1000 µg/mL). Furthermore, phytochemical analyses using TLC and LC-UV/DAD-ESI/MS techniques revealed the presence of anthracene derivatives as the main constituents of DEE fractions, and five known compounds, namely 7'-(chrysophanol-4-yl)-chrysophanol-10'-C-beta-D-xylopyranosyl-anthrone (p), 10,7'-bichrysophanol (q), chrysophanol (r), 10-(chrysophanol-7'-yl)-10-hydroxychrysophanol-9-anthrone (s) and asphodelin (t), were identified as the main marker compounds. All these compounds showed high antimicrobial activity, particularly against Staphylococcus epidermidis (MIC: 3.2 to 100 µg/mL). Importantly, no cytotoxicity against HepG2 and HaCaT cells (up to 125 µg/mL) for crude extracts of both species and genotoxicity (up to 5000 µg/mL, with and without metabolic activation) for AbR 96% hydroethanolic extract was detected using the MTT and Ames tests, respectively. Overall, the obtained results contribute to the concrete validation of the use of these medicinal plants as potential sources of antimicrobial agents in the treatment of skin diseases.

Identification of Marker Compounds and In Vitro Toxicity Evaluation of Two Portuguese Asphodelus Leaf Extracts

The leaves of Asphodelus bento-rainhae subsp. bento-rainhae, an endemic Portuguese species, and Asphodelus macrocarpus subsp. macrocarpus have been used as food, and traditionally as medicine, for treating ulcers, urinary tract, and inflammatory disorders. The present study aims to establish the phytochemical profile of the main secondary metabolites, together with the antimicrobial, antioxidant and toxicity assessments of both Asphodelus leaf 70% ethanol extracts. Phytochemical screenings were conducted by the TLC and LC-UV/DAD-ESI/MS chromatographic technique, and quantification of the leading chemical classes was performed by spectrophotometric methods. Liquid-liquid partitions of crude extracts were obtained using ethyl ether, ethyl acetate, and water. For in vitro evaluations of antimicrobial activity, the broth microdilution method, and for the antioxidant activity, the FRAP and DPPH methods were used. Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity were assessed by Ames and MTT tests, respectively. Twelve known compounds including neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, isoorientin, p-coumaric acid, isovitexin, ferulic acid, luteolin, aloe-emodin, diosmetin, chrysophanol, and β-sitosterol were identified as the main marker compounds, and terpenoids and condensed tannins were found to be the major class of secondary metabolites of both medicinal plants. The ethyl ether fractions demonstrated the highest antibacterial activity against all the Gram-positive microorganisms, (MIC value of 62 to 1000 µg/mL), with aloe-emodin as one of the main marker compounds highly active against Staphylococcus epidermidis (MIC value of 0.8 to 1.6 µg/mL). Ethyl acetate fractions exhibited the highest antioxidant activity (IC₅₀ of 800 to 1200 µg/mL, respectively). No cytotoxicity (up to 1000 µg/mL) or genotoxicity/mutagenicity (up to 5 mg/plate, with/without metabolic activation) were detected. The obtained results contribute to the knowledge of the value and safety of the studied species as herbal medicines.

Contribution to the Preclinical Safety Assessment of Lannea velutina and Sorindeia juglandifolia Leaves

Dried leaves of Lannea velutina A. Rich. and Sorindeia juglandifolia (A. Rich.) Planch. ex Oliv. (family Anacardiaceae) are used in African traditional medicine. Although these medicinal plants have widespread use in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, there is no scientific data concerning their preclinical or clinical safety. This work aimed to investigate the phytochemical properties of the leaves of both species using HPLC-UV/DAD, as well as the in vivo oral repeated-dose toxicity of 70% hydroethanolic leaf extract of S. juglandifolia and the in vitro genotoxicity of 70% hydroethanolic leaf extracts of L. velutina and S. juglandifolia. Clinical signs of toxicity, body weight variations, and changes in food consumption, mortality, and blood biochemical parameters were monitored. Genotoxicity was assessed using the bacterial reverse mutation assay (Ames test) with and without metabolic activation, according to OECD guidelines. The obtained results showed the presence of gallic acid and anacardic acid as the main marker constituents in both species. No significant changes in general body weight or food intake were observed; small significant changes with no critical relevance were observed in the blood biochemistry of animals treated with S. juglandifolia hydroethanolic extract (50, 400, and 1000 mg/kg body weight) compared to those in the control group. No genotoxicity was observed in the bacterial reverse mutation assay with S. juglandifolia and L. velutina extracts (up to 5 mg/plate). The safety data obtained in vivo and lack of genotoxic potential in vitro points to the safe medicinal use of S. juglandifolia and L. velutina extracts.

Monographic Quality Parameters and Genotoxicity Assessment of Asphodelus bento-rainhae and Asphodelus macrocarpus Root Tubers as Herbal Medicines

Root tubers of Asphodelus bento-rainhae subsp. bento-rainhae (AbR), an endemic species with relevant interest due to conservation concerns, and Asphodelus macrocarpus subsp. macrocarpus (AmR) have been traditionally used for culinary and medicinal purposes, mainly associated with skin infection and inflammation. The present study aims to establish the quality control criteria for the proper characterization of dried root tubers of both species as herbal substances, together with their preclinical safety assessments. Botanical identification using macroscopic and microscopic techniques and phytochemical evaluation/quantification of the main classes of marker secondary metabolites, including phenolic compounds (flavonoid, anthraquinone, condensed and hydrolysable tannin) and terpenoids were performed. Additionally, in vitro genotoxicity/mutagenicity was evaluated by Ames test. Evident morphological differences in the development of tubercles (3.5 × 1 cm in AbR and 8.7 × 1.4 cm in AmR) and microscopicly in the arrangements and characteristics of the vascular cylinder (metaxylem and protoxylems) were found. Anatomical similarities such as multiple-layered epidermis (velamen) and the cortex area with thin-walled idioblasts (134 ± 2.9 µm and 150 ± 27.6 µm) containing raphide crystals (37.2 ± 14.2 µm and 87.7 ± 15.3 µm) were observed between AbR and AmR, respectively. Terpenoids (173.88 ± 29.82 and 180.55 ± 10.57 mg OAE/g dried weight) and condensed tannins (128.64 ± 14.05 and 108.35 ± 20.37 mg CAE/g dried weight) were found to be the main class of marker secondary metabolites of AbR and AmR extracts, respectively. No genotoxicity (up to 5 mg/plate, without metabolic activation) was detected in these medicinal plants' tested extracts. The obtained results will contribute to the knowledge of the value of the Portuguese flora and their future commercial cultivation utilization as raw materials for industrial and pharmaceutical use.

Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Neem Oil to the Endoparasitoid Palmistichus elaeisis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

Palmistichus elaeisis Delvare and LaSalle 1993 (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and neem oil are two control alternatives for the integrated management of defoliating lepidopterans. The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute and chronic toxicity of neem oil compared to the synthetic insecticide deltamethrin, on the endoparasitoid P. elaeisis, in generations F0, F1, F2, and F3. Females of P. elaeisis were exposed to neem solutions at concentrations of 0, 1.87, 3.75, 7.50, 15.00, 30.00, and 60.00 mg ml-1, to determine the dose-response relationship and estimate the neem LC50. The sublethal effects on the parasitoid P. elaeisis in generations F0 to F3 were evaluated with these same concentrations of neem and 0.033 mg ml-1 of deltamethrin. The neem LC50 was estimated at 3.92 mg ml-1. The LC50 for P. elaeisis is 3.83 times lower than that recommended by the neem manufacturer for pest control, demonstrating high acute toxicity to this natural enemy. The chronic toxicity of both the commercial dose and those below it to P. elaeisis caused low sublethal effects. The correct concentration of neem oil in pest control is important, and its use should be performed with caution in integrated pest management programs using the endoparasitoid P. elaeisis to avoid causing interference between the two pest control techniques.

Life History of Bedellia somnulentella (Lepidoptera: Bedelliidae) Feeding on Ipomoea batatas (Solanales: Convolvulaceae) Leaves and Survey of Parasitoids in Brazil

The microlepidoptera, Bedellia somnulentella (Zeller), is an important pest of sweetpotato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Damage by B. somnulentella occurs in the larval stage and when consuming the foliar mesophyll of I. batatas make the leaves brown, wrinkled, and reducing the photosynthetic area and the yield. The detection and management of this pest depends on knowing its biological cycle and identifying its natural enemies. The objectives of this study were to determine the life history of B. somnulentella feeding on I. batatas leaves and to survey parasitoids of this pest in the field. The duration and viability of B. somnulentella egg, larva, prepupa, pupa, and adult stages were evaluated under laboratory conditions. Cephalic capsule width was measured to determine the number of B. somnulentella instars, based on the Dyar rule and analyzed by the Akaike statistical model (AIC). The developmental period of B. somnulentella was 32.5 ± 0. 21 d with a viability of 75, 84, 100, and 84% for the egg, larva, prepupa, and pupa stages, respectively. The identification of this pest on the plants is possible from the third instar and in the pupal and adult stages. The parasitoid Conura sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) was identified parasitizing pupae of B. somnulentella and could be considered a potential natural enemy for the integrated management of this pest.

Toxicity of Essential Oils to Diaphania hyalinata (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and Selectivity to Its Parasitoid Trichospilus pupivorus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

Diaphania hyalinata (Linnaeus, 1767) is one of the main pests of the cucurbit crops. Biological control and botanicals are used in integrated pest management (IPM), especially in agro-ecological agricultures where the use of synthetic pesticides is restricted. Toxicological effects of plant essential oils on target and nontarget organisms should be evaluated to determine its use in IPM. The toxicity of ginger, peppermint, oregano, and thyme essential oils to D. hyalinata eggs, larvae, and pupae and their selectivity to the parasitoid Trichospilus pupivorus and the LC50, LC99 and the relative selectivity index (RSI) of these botanicals were determined. The eggs of D. hyalinata were more sensitive to the botanicals applied than its larvae and pupae, with higher toxicity of oregano and thyme essential oils, followed by those of peppermint and ginger. Topical application was the least toxic method to D. hyalinata larvae. Ginger, peppermint, and thyme essential oils were more toxic by ingestion and oregano by contact to D. hyalinata larvae. The essential oil concentrations applied to D. hyalinata pupae prevent the emergence of adults of this insect with the oregano essential oil showing the greatest toxicity. Peppermint, ginger, thyme, and oregano essential oils were selective to T. pupivorus with RSI50 of 5.40, 1.38, 8.15, and 6.98 and RSI99 of 1.54, 2.53, 3.90, and 4.16 respectively. The ginger, peppermint, oregano, and thyme essential oils were toxic to immature D. hyalinata and selective to T. pupivorus females presenting potential as an alternative control in the IPM of this pest in Cucurbitaceae crops.

Selectivity of the botanical compounds to the pollinators Apis mellifera and Trigona hyalinata (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

The toxicity of essential oils that can be used in insect pest management to pollinators needs further studies. Apis mellifera Linnaeus and Trigona hyalinata (Lepeletier) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) foragers were exposed by three pathways to ginger, mint, oregano and thyme essential oils to provide their LC50, LD50 and LC90, LD90. Oregano and thyme were more toxic through contact and topically for A. mellifera while the toxicity of mint and ginger was lower. Trigona hyalinata was more tolerant to the essential oils than A. mellifera. In the walking test, the area was treated (totally or partially) with sub-doses (LC50) obtained via contact. The area fully treated with oregano reduced the distance traveled and the movement speed increased the number of stops by A. mellifera. Similar results were observed for T. hyalinata with oregano and thyme oils. Apis mellifera showed irritability remaining shorter time in the area partially treated with ginger, mint and thyme essential oils while T. hyalinata had similar behavior with ginger and thyme. Essential oils did not repel A. mellifera or T. hyalinata, but those of ginger, mint and thyme reduced the time spent by A. mellifera in areas treated with sublethal doses. Oregano and thyme essential oils reduced the survival, mainly, of A. mellifera, while ginger and mint were selective for both pollinators.

Evaluation of leaf and root absorptions of glyphosate in the growth of coffee plants

ABSTRACT Intoxication by dispersion of glyphosate droplets in coffee seedlings is common and, in addition to the problem of drift, there are reports of contamination of this herbicide to a nontarget plant via the rhizosphere. Hydroponics allows the comparison of the translocation of the glyphosate absorbed by the foliage or the roots and avoids the interaction with the soil, which could hamper the achievement of more accurate conclusions when it is absorbed by the root. Thus, the toxicity of glyphosate sublethal dosages in the initial growth of coffee plants in hydroponics was evaluated by applying four sublethal dosages in two different locations (solution and leaf). Fifty days after the application of the herbicide, the intoxication percentage and the growth of the coffee seedlings were evaluated. From the reduced dose of 115.2 g·ha-1 of glyphosate, height reductions, root length; number of leaves, dry mass of leaf, roots and total, leaf area, and leaf mass ratio were observed. The first two parameters were observed only in leaf application and the others via leaf and solution. The aerial part–root ratio system had an increase in herbicide sublethal dosages when applied to leaves and the ratio of leaf area and specific leaf area increased in both applications. Sublethal dosages of glyphosate applied to young coffee plants under hydroponic conditions impair their growth, and it is more accentuated with increasing doses and when the leaves, instead of the roots, absorb the herbicide.

Do parasitoid density and host age affect the parasitism of Palmistichus elaeisis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)?

ABSTRACT: The incidence of lepidopteran defoliants is one of the environmental factors that regulate the productivity of cultivated forests. The parasitoid Palmistichus elaeisis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) has significant importance for its efficiency in the parasitism of pupae of these Lepidoptera. The objective of this study was to evaluate the development and reproduction of P. elaeisis in different densities of pupae of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) at different ages. Pupae of 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours were exposed at densities of 1:1, 4:1, 10:1, 19:1, 31:1 and 46:1 parasitoids/host, respectively. The parasitoids remained in contact with the pupae for 72 hours in 500 mL plastic pots, conditioned in an air-conditioned room, with temperature of 25 ± 2°C, relative humidity of 70 ± 10% and photoperiod of 12 hours. It was concluded that the density of 10:1 presented great results of parasitism, and further increase of density was not needed. Pupae of 24 and 48 hours had a higher percentage of emergence. Biological variables were affected neither by parasitoid densities nor by host age.

Antennal Sensilla and Sexual Dimorphism of the Parasitoid Trichospilus pupivorus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

Sensory structures (sensilla) of insects are present in high number in the antennae are important for perceiving environmental cues. Thus, sensilla play an important role in the localization, discrimination, and acceptance of a possible host by parasitoid insects. The sensilla, classified according to their shape, size, and distribution, may also show sexual dimorphism in insects. The types and distribution of antennal sensilla in female and male parasitoid Trichospilus pupivorus (Ferriere, 1930) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) were evaluated. T. pupivorus females had longer antennae than males. Both males and females have ten sensilla types with higher abundance of placoid sensilla in females, which suggest a possible functional dimorphism.