An empirical and modelling approach to the evaluation of cruise ships' influence on air quality: The case of La Paz, Mexico

Maritime activity has diverse environmental consequences impacts in port areas, especially for air quality, and the post-COVID-19 cruise tourism market's potential to recover and grow is causing new environmental concerns in expanding port cities. This research proposes an empirical and modelling approach for the evaluation of cruise ships' influence on air quality concerning NO₂ and SO₂ in the city of La Paz (Mexico) using indirect measurements. EPA emission factors and the AERMOD modelling system coupled to WRF were used to model dispersions, while street-level mobile monitoring data of air quality from two days of 2018 were used and processed using a radial base function interpolator. The local differential Moran's Index was estimated at the intersection level using both datasets and a co-location clustering analysis was performed to address spatial constancy and to identify the pollution levels. The modelled results showed that cruise ships' impact on air quality had maximum values of 13.66 μg/m³ for NO₂ and 15.71 μg/m³ for SO₂, while background concentrations of 8.80 for NO_x and 0.05 for SO_x (μg/m³) were found by analysing the LISA index values for intersections not influenced by port pollution. This paper brings insights to the use of hybrid methodologies as an approach to studying the influence of multiple-source pollutants on air quality in contexts totally devoid of environmental data.

Impact of WRF model PBL schemes on air quality simulations over Catalonia, Spain

Here we analyze the impact of four planetary boundary-layer (PBL) parametrization schemes from the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) numerical weather prediction model on simulations of meteorological variables and predicted pollutant concentrations from an air quality forecast system (AQFS). The current setup of the Spanish operational AQFS, CALIOPE, is composed of the WRF-ARW V3.5.1 meteorological model tied to the Yonsei University (YSU) PBL scheme, HERMES v2 emissions model, CMAQ V5.0.2 chemical transport model, and dust outputs from BSC-DREAM8bv2. We test the performance of the YSU scheme against the Assymetric Convective Model Version 2 (ACM2), Mellor-Yamada-Janjic (MYJ), and Bougeault-Lacarrère (BouLac) schemes. The one-day diagnostic case study is selected to represent the most frequent synoptic condition in the northeast Iberian Peninsula during spring 2015; regional recirculations. It is shown that the ACM2 PBL scheme performs well with daytime PBL height, as validated against estimates retrieved using a micro-pulse lidar system (mean bias=-0.11km). In turn, the BouLac scheme showed WRF-simulated air and dew point temperature closer to METAR surface meteorological observations. Results are more ambiguous when simulated pollutant concentrations from CMAQ are validated against network urban, suburban, and rural background stations. The ACM2 scheme showed the lowest mean bias (-0.96μgm^-3) with respect to surface ozone at urban stations, while the YSU scheme performed best with simulated nitrogen dioxide (-6.48μgm^-3). The poorest results were with simulated particulate matter, with similar results found with all schemes tested.

Assessment of Kalman filter bias-adjustment technique to improve the simulation of ground-level ozone over Spain

The CALIOPE air quality modelling system has been used to diagnose ground level O(3) concentration for the year 2004, over the Iberian Peninsula. We investigate the improvement in the simulation of daily O(3) maximum by the use of a post-processing such as the Kalman filter bias-adjustment technique. The Kalman filter bias-adjustment technique is a recursive algorithm to optimally estimate bias-adjustment terms from previous measurements and model results. The bias-adjustment technique improved the simulation of daily O(3) maximum for the entire year and the all the stations considered over the whole domain. The corrected simulation presents improvements in statistical indicators such as correlation, root mean square error, mean bias, and gross error. After the post-processing the exceedances of O(3) concentration limits, as established by the European Directive 2008/50/CE, are better reproduced and the uncertainty of the modelling system, as established by the European Directive 2008/50/CE, is reduced from 20% to 7.5%. Such uncertainty in the model results is under the established EU limit of the 50%. Significant improvements in the O(3) timing and amplitude of the daily cycle are also observed after the post-processing. The systematic improvements in the O(3) maximum simulations suggest that the Kalman filter post-processing method is a suitable technique to reproduce accurate estimate of ground-level O(3) concentration. With this study we evince that the adjusted O(3) concentrations obtained after the post-process of the results from the CALIOPE system are a reliable means for real near time O(3) forecasts.

An annual assessment of air quality with the CALIOPE modeling system over Spain

The CALIOPE project, funded by the Spanish Ministry of the Environment, aims at establishing an air quality forecasting system for Spain. With this goal, CALIOPE modeling system was developed and applied with high resolution (4km×4km, 1h) using the HERMES emission model (including emissions of resuspended particles from paved roads) specifically built up for Spain. The present study provides an evaluation and the assessment of the modeling system, coupling WRF-ARW/HERMES/CMAQ/BSC-DREAM8b for a full-year simulation in 2004 over Spain. The evaluation focuses on the capability of the model to reproduce the temporal and spatial distribution of gas phase species (NO(2), O(3), and SO(2)) and particulate matter (PM10) against ground-based measurements from the Spanish air quality monitoring network. The evaluation of the modeling results on an hourly basis shows a strong dependency of the performance of the model on the type of environment (urban, suburban and rural) and the dominant emission sources (traffic, industrial, and background). The O(3) chemistry is best represented in summer, when mean hourly variability and high peaks are generally well reproduced. The mean normalized error and bias meet the recommendations proposed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) and the European regulations. Modeled O(3) shows higher performance for urban than for rural stations, especially at traffic stations in large cities, since stations influenced by traffic emissions (i.e., high-NO(x) environments) are better characterized with a more pronounced daily variability. NO(x)/O(3) chemistry is better represented under non-limited-NO(2) regimes. SO(2) is mainly produced from isolated point sources (power generation and transformation industries) which generate large plumes of high SO(2) concentration affecting the air quality on a local to national scale where the meteorological pattern is crucial. The contribution of mineral dust from the Sahara desert through the BSC-DREAM8b model helps to satisfactorily reproduce episodic high PM10 concentration peaks at background stations. The model assessment indicates that one of the main air quality-related problems in Spain is the high level of O(3). A quarter of the Iberian Peninsula shows more than 30days exceeding the value 120μgm(-3) for the maximum 8-h O(3) concentration as a consequence of the transport of O(3) precursors downwind to/from the Madrid and Barcelona metropolitan areas, and industrial areas and cities in the Mediterranean coast.

A comprehensive assessment of PM emissions from paved roads: real-world Emission Factors and intense street cleaning trials

Compliance with air quality standards requires control of source emissions: fine exhaust particles are already subject to regulation but vehicle fleets increase whilst the non-exhaust emissions are totally uncontrolled. Emission inventories are scarce despite their suitability for researchers and regulating agencies for managing air quality and PM reduction measures. Only few countries in Europe proposed street cleaning as a possible control measure, but its effectiveness is still far to be determined. This study offers first estimates of Real-world Emission Factors for PM(10) and brake-wear elements and the effect on PM(10) concentrations induced by intense street cleaning trials. A straightforward campaign was carried out in the city of Barcelona with hourly elemental composition of fine and coarse PM to detect any short-term effect of street cleaning on specific tracers of non-exhaust emissions. Samples were analyzed by Particle Induced X-Ray Emission. Real-world Emission Factor for PM(10) averaged for the local fleet resulted to be 97 mg veh(-1) km(-1). When compared to other European studies, our EF resulted higher than what found in UK, Germany, Switzerland and Austria but lower than Scandinavian countries. For brake-related elements, total EFs were estimated, accounting for the sum of direct and resuspension emissions, in 7400, 486, 106 and 86 microg veh(-1) km(-1), respectively for Fe, Cu, Sn and Sb. In PM(2.5)Fe and Cu emission factors were respectively 4884 and 306 microg veh(-1) km(-1). Intense street cleaning trials evidenced a PM(10) reduction at kerbside of 3 microg m(-3) (mean daily levels of 54 microg m(-3)), with respect to reference stations. It is important to remark that such benefit could only be detected in small time-integration periods (12:00-18:00) since in daily values this benefit was not noticed. Hourly PM elemental monitoring allowed the identification of mineral and brake-related metallic particles as those responsible of the PM(10) reduction.

Sensitivity study of surface wind flow of a limited area model simulating the extratropical storm Delta affecting the Canary Islands

Abstract. In November 2005 an extratropical storm named Delta affected the Canary Islands (Spain). The high sustained wind and intense gusts experienced caused significant damage. A numerical sensitivity study of Delta was conducted using the Weather Research & Forecasting Model (WRF-ARW). A total of 27 simulations were performed. Non-hydrostatic and hydrostatic experiments were designed taking into account physical parameterizations and geometrical factors (size and position of the outer domain, definition or not of nested grids, horizontal resolution and number of vertical levels). The Factor Separation Method was applied in order to identify the major model sensitivity parameters under this unusual meteorological situation. Results associated to percentage changes relatives to a control run simulation demonstrated that boundary layer and surface layer schemes, horizontal resolutions, hydrostaticity option and nesting grid activation were the model configuration parameters with the greatest impact on the 48 h maximum 10 m horizontal wind speed solution.

Caliope: an operational air quality forecasting system for the Iberian Peninsula, Balearic Islands and Canary Islands – first annual evaluation and ongoing developments

Abstract. The Caliope project funded by the Spanish Ministry of the Environment establishes an air quality forecasting system for Spain to increase the knowledge on transport and dynamics of pollutants in Spain, to assure the accomplishment of legislation and to inform the population about the levels of pollutants, topics in which the European Commission has shown a great concern. The present contribution describes the first quantitative verification study performed so far with two chemistry transport models (CMAQ and CHIMERE) for a reference year (2004) at medium spatial resolution (around 20×20 km for the Iberian Peninsula). Both models perform similarly in the case of ground-level ozone. The mean normalised gross error MNGE remains below 15–20% during summertime, when ozone episodes occur, outlining the good skills of the system concerning the forecasting of air quality in Spain. Furthermore, the ongoing developments of the system towards high resolution modelling (4×4 km for Spain, 12×12 km for Europe, 1 h temporal resolution) and the integration with observations within the Caliope umbrella are described.

High resolution modelling results of the wind flow over Canary Islands during the meteorological situation of the extratropical storm Delta (28–30 November 2005)

Abstract. On 28–29 November 2005 an extratropical storm affected the Canary Islands causing significant damage related to high average wind speeds and intense gusts over some islands of the archipelago. Delta was the twenty-sixth tropical or subtropical storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. It represents an unusual meteorological phenomenon for that region, and its impacts were underestimated by the different operational meteorological forecasts during the previous days of the arrival of the low near Canary Islands. The aim of this study is to reproduce the local effects of the flow that were observed over the Canary Islands during the travel of the Delta storm near the region using high-resolution mesoscale meteorological simulations. The Advanced Research Weather Research & Forecasting Model (WRF-ARW) is applied at 9, 3 and 1 km horizontal resolution using ECMWF forecasts as initial and boundary conditions. The high-resolution simulation will outline the main features that contributed to the high wind speeds observed in the archipelago. Variations in vertical static stability, vertical windshear and the intense synoptic winds of the southwestern part of Delta with a warm core at 850 hPa were the main characteristics that contributed to the development and amplification of intense gravity waves while the large-scale flow interacted with the complex topography of the islands.

Development of the high spatial resolution EMICAT2000 emission model for air pollutants from the north-eastern Iberian Peninsula (Catalonia, Spain)

Ozone (O(3)) pollution episodes take place in Catalonia (NE of the Iberian Peninsula), mainly during summertime. The complex O(3) behaviour could be understood by using a Chemical Transport Model (CTM). Emission inventories provide the spatial and temporal emissions distribution of the O(3) precursors and other pollutants required by this approach. We developed the EMICAT2000 model with high spatial (cells of 1 km(2)) and temporal (1h) resolutions, to estimate the emissions during the year 2000 from Catalonia. Total annual emissions were 107 kt yr(-1) of NO(x), 137 kt yr(-1) of NMVOC, 267 kt yr(-1) of CO, 65 kt yr(-1) of SO(2), 24 kt yr(-1) of TSP and 32,175 kt yr(-1) of equivalent CO(2). Main NO(x) sources are on-road traffic (58%) and industries (38%). Main NMVOC sources are on-road traffic (36%), vegetation (34%) and use of solvents (13%). Speciation was established according to the Carbon Bond IV mechanism. EMICAT2000 generates directly the data files required for the third generation CTM Models-3/CMAQ.

Estimating the biogenic emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from the North Western Mediterranean vegetation of Catalonia, Spain

An estimation of the magnitude of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) emitted by vegetation in Catalonia (NE of the Iberian Peninsula, Spain), in addition to their superficial and temporal distribution, is presented for policy and scientific (photochemical modelling) purposes. It was developed for the year 2000, for different time resolutions (hourly, daily, monthly and annual) and using a high-resolution land-use map (1-km2 squared cells). Several meteorological surface stations provided air temperature and solar radiation data. An adjusted mathematical emission model taking account of Catalonia's conditions was built into a geographic information system (GIS) software. This estimation uses the latest information, mainly relating to: (1) emission factors; (2) better knowledge of the composition of Catalonia's forest cover; and (3) better knowledge of the particular emission behaviour of some Mediterranean vegetal species. Results depict an annual cycle with increasing values in the March-April period with the highest emissions in July-August, followed by a decrease in October-November. Annual biogenic NMVOCs emissions reach 46.9 kt, with monoterpenes the most abundant species (24.7 kt), followed by other biogenic volatile organic compounds (e.g. alcohols, aldehydes and acetone) (16.3 kt), and isoprene (5.9 kt). These compounds signify 52%, 35% and 13%, respectively, of total emission estimates. Peak hourly total emission for a winter day could be less than 10% of the corresponding value for a summer day.

Air quality data from large cities

This paper presents an assessment of the air quality for the principal cities in developed and developing countries. Part of the vast and widely dispersed information on air quality that is available at this time on the Internet was compiled, thus making possible a comprehensive evaluation of the tendencies that emerged at the end of the 20th century. Likewise, these values are compared to the air quality thresholds recommended by two international organizations: guideline levels of the World Health Organization (WHO) and limit values of the European Union (EU), in order to determine air quality concentration levels in large cities around the world. The current situation of air quality worldwide indicates that SO(2) maintains a downward tendency throughout the world, with the exception of some Central American and Asian cities. NO(2) maintains levels very close to the WHO guideline value around the world. For particulate matter, it is a major problem in almost all of Asia, exceeding 300 microg/m(3) in many cities. Ozone shows average values that exceed the selected guideline values in all of the analyses demonstrating that it is a global problem. In general, the worldwide trend is to a reduction in the concentrations of pollutants because of the increasingly strong restrictions which local governments and international organizations impose. However, in poor countries and those with low average incomes, concentrations of air pollutants remain high and the trend will be the elevation of their ground levels as they develop, making the problem even worse.

Environmental performance review and cost analysis of MSW landfilling by baling-wrapping technology versus conventional system

This paper first reviews the chemical, physical and biological processes, and the environmental performance of MSW compacted and plastic-wrapped into air-tight bales with low-density polyethylene (LDPE). The baling-wrapping process halts the short and half-term biological activity and consequently the emission of gases and leachates. It also facilitates the handling of the refuse, and considerably reduces the main environmental impacts of a landfill. The main technologies available for baling-wrapping MSW are also presented. Furthermore, a cost analysis comparing a conventional landfill (CL) without baling system versus two landfills using different baling-wrapping technologies (rectangular and cylindrical bales) is carried out. The results are presented comparatively under the conditions of construction, operation and maintenance and postclosure, as required by European Directive 1999/31. A landfill using rectangular plastic-wrapped bales (LRPB) represents an economically competitive option compared to a CL. The increased capacity of the waste disposal zone when using rectangular bales due to the high density of the bales compensates for the increased operating and maintenance (O&M) costs of the method. Landfills using cylindrical plastic-wrapped bales (LCPB's) do not fare so well, mainly because the density within the bales is lower, the cylindrical geometry of the bales does not allow such an efficient use of the space within the landfill, and the processing capacity of the machinery is lower. From the cost model, the resulting unit costs per tonne in a LRPB, a LCPB and a CL for 100,000 t/year of waste, an operation time of 15 years and a landfill depth (H) of 20 m, are 31.52, 43.36 and 31.83 /t, respectively.

Stabilization/solidification of MSW incineration residues from facilities with different air pollution control systems. Durability of matrices versus carbonation

This paper discusses the stabilisation/solidification process with Portland cement applied to municipal solid waste incineration residues. Two types of residues were considered: fly ash (FA) produced in an electrostatic precipitator, and air pollution control (APC) residues from a semi-dry scrubber process. Cement pastes with different percentages of FA and APC residues were characterised according to their physical properties, the effect of the hydration products and their leaching behaviour. Portland pastes prepared with APC residues showed a rapid setting velocity in comparison with setting time for those pastes substituted with FA residues. Portland cement hydration was retarded in FA pastes. Leaching test results showed that heavy metals (such as Zn, Pb and Cd) and sulphates are immobilised within the paste, whereas chlorides are only partially retained. The carbonation process increases the leachability of S04(2-) and heavy metals such as Zn and Cr.

Emission of greenhouse gases from anaerobic digestion processes: comparison with other municipal solid waste treatments

This contribution analyzes the anaerobic digestion process and compares GHG emissions estimated for four different management processes for MSW (Municipal Solid Waste): biogasification, landfilling, composting and incineration. The comparison has been undertaken by considering in the estimation of the emissions the full cycle of MSW treatment, and not only the emissions derived from the fraction of MSW treated by each particular system. For instance, the fraction of MSW not submitted to biological treatment has to be incinerated or deposited in a landfill. The corresponding emissions of these processes have to be considered in the calculations of the final emissions.

Lidar inversion of atmospheric backscatter and extinction-to-backscatter ratios by use of a Kalman filter

A first inversion of the backscatter profile and extinction-to-backscatter ratio from pulsed elastic-backscatter lidar returns is treated by means of an extended Kalman filter (EKF). The EKF approach enables one to overcome the intrinsic limitations of standard straightforward nonmemory procedures such as the slope method, exponential curve fitting, and the backward inversion algorithm. Whereas those procedures are inherently not adaptable because independent inversions are performed for each return signal and neither the statistics of the signals nor a priori uncertainties (e.g., boundary calibrations) are taken into account, in the case of the Kalman filter the filter updates itself because it is weighted by the imbalance between the a priori estimates of the optical parameters (i.e., past inversions) and the new estimates based on a minimum-variance criterion, as long as there are different lidar returns. Calibration errors and initialization uncertainties can be assimilated also. The study begins with the formulation of the inversion problem and an appropriate atmospheric stochastic model. Based on extensive simulation and realistic conditions, it is shown that the EKF approach enables one to retrieve the optical parameters as time-range-dependent functions and hence to track the atmospheric evolution; the performance of this approach is limited only by the quality and availability of the a priori information and the accuracy of the atmospheric model used. The study ends with an encouraging practical inversion of a live scene measured at the Nd:YAG elastic-backscatter lidar station at our premises at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Barcelona.