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Ilyas M, Purkait D, Atmakuri K. Genomic islands and their role in fitness traits of two key sepsis-causing bacterial pathogens. Brief Funct Genomics 2024; 23:55-68. [PMID: 36528816 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/elac051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2024] Open
Abstract
To survive and establish a niche for themselves, bacteria constantly evolve. Toward that, they not only insert point mutations and promote illegitimate recombinations within their genomes but also insert pieces of 'foreign' deoxyribonucleic acid, which are commonly referred to as 'genomic islands' (GEIs). The GEIs come in several forms, structures and types, often providing a fitness advantage to the harboring bacterium. In pathogenic bacteria, some GEIs may enhance virulence, thus altering disease burden, morbidity and mortality. Hence, delineating (i) the GEIs framework, (ii) their encoded functions, (iii) the triggers that help them move, (iv) the mechanisms they exploit to move among bacteria and (v) identification of their natural reservoirs will aid in superior tackling of several bacterial diseases, including sepsis. Given the vast array of comparative genomics data, in this short review, we provide an overview of the GEIs, their types and the compositions therein, especially highlighting GEIs harbored by two important pathogens, viz. Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae, which prominently trigger sepsis in low- and middle-income countries. Our efforts help shed some light on the challenges these pathogens pose when equipped with GEIs. We hope that this review will provoke intense research into understanding GEIs, the cues that drive their mobility across bacteria and the ways and means to prevent their transfer, especially across pathogenic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Ilyas
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Lab, Infection and Immunity Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India
| | - Dyuti Purkait
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Lab, Infection and Immunity Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Lab, Infection and Immunity Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India
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Purkait D, Ilyas M, Atmakuri K. Protein-Protein Interactions: Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation and Cytology Two Hybrid. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2715:247-257. [PMID: 37930533 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3445-5_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Identifying protein-protein interactions between machine components of bacterial secretion systems and their cognate substrates is central to delineating how the machines operate to translocate their substrates. Further, establishing which among the machine components and their substrates interact with each other facilitates (i) advancement in our understanding of the architecture and assembly of the machines, (ii) understanding the substrates' translocation routes and mechanisms, and (iii) how the machines and the substrates talk to each other. Currently, though diverse biochemical methods exist in identifying direct and indirect protein-protein interactions, they primarily remain in vitro and can be quite labor intensive. They also may capture/exhibit false-positive interactions because of barrier breakdowns as part of methodology. Thus, adopting novel genetic approaches to help visualize the same in vivo can yield quick, advantageous, reliable, and informative protein-protein interactions data. Here, we describe the easily adoptable bimolecular fluorescence complementation and cytology-based two-hybrid assays to understand the bacterial secretions systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dyuti Purkait
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Mohd Ilyas
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India.
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Jayaswal P, Ilyas M, Singh K, Kumar S, Sisodiya L, Jain S, Mahlawat R, Sharma N, Gupta V, Atmakuri K. Enrichment of Native and Recombinant Extracellular Vesicles of Mycobacteria. J Vis Exp 2023. [PMID: 38145372 DOI: 10.3791/65138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Most bacteria, including mycobacteria, generate extracellular vesicles (EVs). Since bacterial EVs (bEVs) contain a subset of cellular components, including metabolites, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, several groups have evaluated either the native or recombinant versions of bEVs for their protective potency as subunit vaccine candidates. Unlike native EVs, recombinant EVs are molecularly engineered to contain one or more immunogens of interest. Over the last decade, different groups have explored diverse approaches for generating recombinant bEVs. However, here, we report the design, construction, and enrichment of recombinant mycobacterial EVs (mEVs) in mycobacteria. Towards that, we use Mycobacterium smegmatis (Msm), an avirulent soil mycobacterium as the model system. We first describe the generation and enrichment of native EVs of Msm. Then, we describe the design and construction of recombinant mEVs that contain either mCherry, a red fluorescent reporter protein, or EsxA (Esat-6), a prominent immunogen of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. We achieve this by separately fusing mCherry and EsxA N-termini with the C-terminus of a small Msm protein Cfp-29. Cfp-29 is one of the few abundantly present proteins of MsmEVs. The protocol to generate and enrich recombinant mEVs from Msm remains identical to the generation and enrichment of native EVs of Msm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praapti Jayaswal
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster
| | - Mohd Ilyas
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster
| | - Kuljit Singh
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster; Clinical Microbiology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine
| | - Saurabh Kumar
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster; ICAR-Research Complex for Eastern Region
| | - Lovely Sisodiya
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster
| | - Sapna Jain
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster
| | - Rahul Mahlawat
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster
| | - Nishant Sharma
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster
| | - Vishal Gupta
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster;
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Mehrotra T, Konar D, Pragasam AK, Kumar S, Jana P, Babele P, Paul D, Purohit A, Tanwar S, Bakshi S, Das S, Verma J, Talukdar D, Narendrakumar L, Kothidar A, Karmakar SP, Chaudhuri S, Pal S, Jain K, Srikanth CV, Sankar MJ, Atmakuri K, Agarwal R, Gaind R, Ballal M, Kammili N, Bhadra RK, Ramamurthy T, Nair GB, Das B. Antimicrobial resistance heterogeneity among multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens: Phenotypic, genotypic, and proteomic analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2305465120. [PMID: 37549252 PMCID: PMC10434301 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2305465120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbes evolve rapidly by modifying their genomes through mutations or through the horizontal acquisition of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) linked with fitness traits such as antimicrobial resistance (AMR), virulence, and metabolic functions. We conducted a multicentric study in India and collected different clinical samples for decoding the genome sequences of bacterial pathogens associated with sepsis, urinary tract infections, and respiratory infections to understand the functional potency associated with AMR and its dynamics. Genomic analysis identified several acquired AMR genes (ARGs) that have a pathogen-specific signature. We observed that blaCTX-M-15, blaCMY-42, blaNDM-5, and aadA(2) were prevalent in Escherichia coli, and blaTEM-1B, blaOXA-232, blaNDM-1, rmtB, and rmtC were dominant in Klebsiella pneumoniae. In contrast, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii harbored blaVEB, blaVIM-2, aph(3'), strA/B, blaOXA-23, aph(3') variants, and amrA, respectively. Regardless of the type of ARG, the MGEs linked with ARGs were also pathogen-specific. The sequence type of these pathogens was identified as high-risk international clones, with only a few lineages being predominant and region-specific. Whole-cell proteome analysis of extensively drug-resistant K. pneumoniae, A. baumannii, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa strains revealed differential abundances of resistance-associated proteins in the presence and absence of different classes of antibiotics. The pathogen-specific resistance signatures and differential abundance of AMR-associated proteins identified in this study should add value to AMR diagnostics and the choice of appropriate drug combinations for successful antimicrobial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanshi Mehrotra
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Dipasri Konar
- Division of Diagnostic Laboratory, Jan Swasthya Sahyog, Ganiyari, Bilaspur495112, India
| | - Agila Kumari Pragasam
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Shakti Kumar
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Pradipta Jana
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Prabhakar Babele
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Deepjyoti Paul
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Ayushi Purohit
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Subhash Tanwar
- Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Susmita Bakshi
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Santanu Das
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Jyoti Verma
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Daizee Talukdar
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Lekshmi Narendrakumar
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Akanksha Kothidar
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Sonali Porey Karmakar
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Susmita Chaudhuri
- Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Sujoy Pal
- Department of Gastroenterology and Human Nutrition, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi110029, India
| | - Kajal Jain
- Department of Gastroenterology and Human Nutrition, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi110029, India
| | - Chittur V. Srikanth
- Laboratory of Gut Infection and Inflammation Biology, Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Faridabad121001, India
| | - M. Jeeva Sankar
- Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi110029, India
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
| | - Ramesh Agarwal
- Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi110029, India
| | - Rajni Gaind
- Department of Microbiology, Vardhman Mahavir Medical College and Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi110029, India
| | - Mamatha Ballal
- Department of Microbiology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal576104, India
| | - Nagamani Kammili
- Department of Microbiology, Pathogen Biology Division, Gandhi Medical College and Hospital, Secunderabad500003, India
| | - Rupak K. Bhadra
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata700 032, India
| | - Thandavarayan Ramamurthy
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
- Division of Bacteriology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata700010, India
| | - G. Balakrish Nair
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
- Pathogen Biology Division, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Thiruvananthapuram695014, India
| | - Bhabatosh Das
- Infection and Immunology Division, Functional Genomics Laboratory, Centre for Microbial Research, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad121001, India
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Singh N, Sharma N, Singh P, Pandey M, Ilyas M, Sisodiya L, Choudhury T, Gosain TP, Singh R, Atmakuri K. HupB, a nucleoid-associated protein, is critical for survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis under host-mediated stresses and for enhanced tolerance to key first-line antibiotics. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:937970. [PMID: 36071978 PMCID: PMC9441915 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.937970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
To survive and establish its niche, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) engages in a steady battle against an array of host defenses and a barrage of antibiotics. Here, we demonstrate that Mtb employs HupB, a nucleoid-associated protein (NAP) as its key player to simultaneously battle and survive in these two stress-inducing fronts. Typically, NAPs are key to bacterial survival under a wide array of environmental or host-mediated stresses. Here, we report that for Mtb to survive under different macrophage-induced assaults including acidic pH, nutrient depletion, oxidative and nitrosative stresses, HupB presence is critical. As expected, the hupB knockout mutant is highly sensitive to these host-mediated stresses. Furthermore, Mtb aptly modulates HupB protein levels to overcome these stresses. We also report that HupB aids Mtb to gain tolerance to high levels of rifampicin (RIF) and isoniazid (INH) exposure. Loss of hupB makes Mtb highly susceptible to even short exposures to reduced amounts of RIF and INH. Overexpressing hupB in Mtb or complementing hupB in the hupB knockout mutant triggers enhanced survival of Mtb under these stresses. We also find that upon loss of hupB, Mtb significantly enhances the permeability of its cell wall by modulating the levels of several surface lipids including phthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIMs), thus possibly influencing overall susceptibility to host-mediated stresses. Loss of hupB also downregulates efflux pump expression possibly influencing increased susceptibility to INH and RIF. Finally, we find that therapeutic targeting of HupB with SD1, a known small molecule inhibitor, significantly enhances Mtb susceptibility to INH and THP-1 macrophages and significantly reduces MIC to INH. Thus, our data strongly indicate that HupB is a highly promising therapeutic target especially for potential combinatorial shortened therapy with reduced INH and RIF doses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niti Singh
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Manipal University, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Nishant Sharma
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Padam Singh
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Manitosh Pandey
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Department of Life Sciences, ITM University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Mohd Ilyas
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Lovely Sisodiya
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Tejaswini Choudhury
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Tannu Priya Gosain
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Ramandeep Singh
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- *Correspondence: Krishnamohan Atmakuri
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Verma J, Sankar MJ, Atmakuri K, Agarwal R, Das B. Gut microbiome dysbiosis in neonatal sepsis. Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science 2022; 192:125-147. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2022.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Das S, Jain S, Ilyas M, Anand A, Kumar S, Sharma N, Singh K, Mahlawat R, Sharma TK, Atmakuri K. Development of DNA Aptamers to Visualize Release of Mycobacterial Membrane-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Infected Macrophages. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 15:ph15010045. [PMID: 35056102 PMCID: PMC8779091 DOI: 10.3390/ph15010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged into a novel vaccine platform, a biomarker and a nano-carrier for approved drugs. Their accurate detection and visualization are central to their utility in varied biomedical fields. Owing to the limitations of fluorescent dyes and antibodies, here, we describe DNA aptamer as a promising tool for visualizing mycobacterial EVs in vitro. Employing SELEX from a large DNA aptamer library, we identified a best-performing aptamer that is highly specific and binds at nanomolar affinity to EVs derived from three diverse mycobacterial strains (pathogenic, attenuated and avirulent). Confocal microscopy revealed that this aptamer was not only bound to in vitro-enriched mycobacterial EVs but also detected EVs that were internalized by THP-1 macrophages and released by infecting mycobacteria. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that detects EVs released by mycobacteria during infection in host macrophages. Within 4 h, most released mycobacterial EVs spread to other parts of the host cell. We predict that this tool will soon hold huge potential in not only delineating mycobacterial EVs-driven pathogenic functions but also in harboring immense propensity to act as a non-invasive diagnostic tool against tuberculosis in general, and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soonjyoti Das
- Aptamer Technology and Diagnostics Laboratory (ATDL), Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research Group (MCTR), Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.D.); (A.A.); (N.S.); (K.S.); (R.M.)
| | - Sapna Jain
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.J.); (M.I.); (S.K.)
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, Delhi, India
| | - Mohd Ilyas
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.J.); (M.I.); (S.K.)
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, Delhi, India
| | - Anjali Anand
- Aptamer Technology and Diagnostics Laboratory (ATDL), Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research Group (MCTR), Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.D.); (A.A.); (N.S.); (K.S.); (R.M.)
| | - Saurabh Kumar
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.J.); (M.I.); (S.K.)
| | - Nishant Sharma
- Aptamer Technology and Diagnostics Laboratory (ATDL), Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research Group (MCTR), Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.D.); (A.A.); (N.S.); (K.S.); (R.M.)
- Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi 110062, Delhi, India
| | - Kuljit Singh
- Aptamer Technology and Diagnostics Laboratory (ATDL), Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research Group (MCTR), Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.D.); (A.A.); (N.S.); (K.S.); (R.M.)
- Clinical Microbiology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 18001, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| | - Rahul Mahlawat
- Aptamer Technology and Diagnostics Laboratory (ATDL), Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research Group (MCTR), Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.D.); (A.A.); (N.S.); (K.S.); (R.M.)
| | - Tarun Kumar Sharma
- Aptamer Technology and Diagnostics Laboratory (ATDL), Multidisciplinary Clinical and Translational Research Group (MCTR), Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.D.); (A.A.); (N.S.); (K.S.); (R.M.)
- Correspondence: (T.K.S.); (K.A.)
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Infection and Immunology Group, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India; (S.J.); (M.I.); (S.K.)
- Correspondence: (T.K.S.); (K.A.)
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Sharma N, Aggarwal S, Kumar S, Sharma R, Choudhury K, Singh N, Jayaswal P, Goel R, Wajid S, Yadav AK, Atmakuri K. Comparative analysis of homologous aminopeptidase PepN from pathogenic and non-pathogenic mycobacteria reveals divergent traits. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215123. [PMID: 30969995 PMCID: PMC6457555 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) secretes proteases and peptidases to subjugate its host. Out of its sixty plus proteases, atleast three are reported to reach host macrophages. In this study, we show that Mtb also delivers a lysyl alanine aminopeptidase, PepN (Rv2467) into host macrophage cytosol. Our comparative in silico analysis shows PepNMtb highly conserved across all pathogenic mycobacteria. Non-pathogenic mycobacteria including M. smegmatis (Msm) also encode pepN. PepN protein levels in both Mtb (pathogenic) and Msm (non-pathogenic) remain uniform across all in vitro growth phases. Despite such tight maintenance of PepNs' steady state levels, upon supplementation, Mtb alone allows accumulation of any excessive PepN. In contrast, Msm does not. It not only proteolyzes, but also secretes out the excessive PepN, be it native or foreign. Interestingly, while PepNMtb is required for modulating virulence in vivo, PepNMsm is essential for Msm growth in vitro. Despite such essentiality difference, both PepNMtb and PepNMsm harbor almost identical N-terminal M1-type peptidase domains that significantly align in their amino acid sequences and overlap in their secondary structures. Their C-terminal ERAP1_C-like domains however align much more moderately. Our in vitro macrophage-based infection experiments with MtbΔpepN-expressing pepNMsm reveals PepNMsm also retaining the ability to reach host cytosol. Lastly, but notably, we determined the PepNMtb and PepNMsm interactomes and found them to barely coincide. While PepNMtb chiefly interacts with Mtb's secreted proteins, PepNMsm primarily coimmunoprecipitates with Msm's housekeeping proteins. Thus, despite high sequence homology and several common properties, our comparative analytical study reveals host-centric traits of pathogenic and bacterial-centric traits of non-pathogenic PepNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nishant Sharma
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
| | - Suruchi Aggarwal
- Drug Discovery Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
| | - Saravanan Kumar
- Proteomics Facility, Thermo Fisher Scientific Pvt. Ltd., Bengaluru, Karnataka, INDIA
| | - Rahul Sharma
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
| | - Konika Choudhury
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
| | - Niti Singh
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
- INDIAManipal University, Manipal, Karnataka, INDIA
| | - Praapti Jayaswal
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
| | - Renu Goel
- Drug Discovery Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
| | - Saima Wajid
- Dept. of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi
| | - Amit Kumar Yadav
- Drug Discovery Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, INDIA
- * E-mail:
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Atmakuri K, Penn-Nicholson A, Tanner R, Dockrell HM. Meeting report: 5th Global Forum on TB Vaccines, 20-23 February 2018, New Delhi India. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2018; 113:55-64. [PMID: 30514514 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2018.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The 5th Global Forum on TB Vaccines was held in New Delhi, India from 20 to 23 February 2018. This was the largest Global Forum on TB Vaccines to date with nearly 350 participants from more than 30 countries. The program included over 60 speakers in 12 special, plenary and breakout sessions and 72 posters. This Global Forum brought a great sense of momentum and excitement to the field. New vaccines are in clinical trials, new routes of delivery are being tested, novel assays and biomarker signatures are being developed, and the results from the first prevention of infection clinical trial with the H4:IC31 vaccine candidate and BCG revaccination were presented. Speakers and participants acknowledged the significant challenges that the TB vaccine R&D field continues to face - including limited funding, and the need for novel effective vaccine candidates and tools such as improved diagnostics and biomarkers to accurately predict protective efficacy. New solutions and approaches to address these challenges were discussed. The following report presents highlights from talks presented at this Global Forum. A full program, abstract book and presentations (where publicly available) from the Forum may be found at tbvaccinesforum.org.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, 3rd Milestone, Faridabad, Haryana, 121001, India.
| | - Adam Penn-Nicholson
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Wernher and Beit South Building, Health Sciences Faculty, Observatory, 7925 Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory, Cape Town, 7935, South Africa.
| | - Rachel Tanner
- The Jenner Institute, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK.
| | - Hazel M Dockrell
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
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Maindola P, Raina R, Goyal P, Atmakuri K, Ojha A, Gupta S, Christie PJ, Iyer LM, Aravind L, Arockiasamy A. Multiple enzymatic activities of ParB/Srx superfamily mediate sexual conflict among conjugative plasmids. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5322. [PMID: 25358815 PMCID: PMC4241021 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Conjugative plasmids are typically locked in intergenomic and sexual conflicts with coresident rivals, whose translocation they block using fertility inhibition factors (FINs). We describe here the first crystal structure of an enigmatic FIN Osa deployed by the proteobacterial plasmid pSa. Osa contains a catalytically active version of the ParB/Sulfiredoxin fold with both ATPase and DNase activity, the latter being regulated by an ATP-dependent switch. Using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/D4 type-IV secretion system (T4SS), a relative of the conjugative T4SS, we demonstrate that catalytically active Osa blocks T-DNA transfer into plants. With a partially reconstituted T4SS in vitro, we show that Osa degrades T-DNA in the T-DNA-VirD2 complex prior to its translocation. Further, we present evidence for conservation and interplay between ATPase and DNase activities throughout the ParB/Sulfiredoxin fold, using other members of the family, namely P1 ParB and RK2 KorB, which have general functional implications across diverse biological contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyank Maindola
- Structural and Computational Biology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Rahul Raina
- Structural and Computational Biology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Parveen Goyal
- Structural and Computational Biology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 6431 Fannin St, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Abhishek Ojha
- Structural and Computational Biology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Sourabh Gupta
- Structural and Computational Biology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Peter J Christie
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 6431 Fannin St, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Lakshminarayan M Iyer
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20894-6075, USA
| | - L Aravind
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20894-6075, USA
| | - Arulandu Arockiasamy
- Structural and Computational Biology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
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Cascales E, Atmakuri K, Sarkar MK, Christie PJ. DNA substrate-induced activation of the Agrobacterium VirB/VirD4 type IV secretion system. J Bacteriol 2013; 195:2691-704. [PMID: 23564169 PMCID: PMC3676061 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00114-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The bitopic membrane protein VirB10 of the Agrobacterium VirB/VirD4 type IV secretion system (T4SS) undergoes a structural transition in response to sensing of ATP binding or hydrolysis by the channel ATPases VirD4 and VirB11. This transition, detectable as a change in protease susceptibility, is required for DNA substrate passage through the translocation channel. Here, we present evidence that DNA substrate engagement with VirD4 and VirB11 also is required for activation of VirB10. Several DNA substrates (oncogenic T-DNA and plasmids RSF1010 and pCloDF13) induced the VirB10 conformational change, each by mechanisms requiring relaxase processing at cognate oriT sequences. VirD2 relaxase deleted of its translocation signal or any of the characterized relaxases produced in the absence of cognate DNA substrates did not induce the structural transition. Translocated effector proteins, e.g., VirE2, VirE3, and VirF, also did not induce the transition. By mutational analyses, we supplied evidence that the N-terminal periplasmic loop of VirD4, in addition to its catalytic site, is essential for early-stage DNA substrate transfer and the VirB10 conformational change. Further studies of VirB11 mutants established that three T4SS-mediated processes, DNA transfer, protein transfer, and pilus production, can be uncoupled and that the latter two processes proceed independently of the VirB10 conformational change. Our findings support a general model whereby DNA ligand binding with VirD4 and VirB11 stimulates ATP binding/hydrolysis, which in turn activates VirB10 through a structural transition. This transition confers an open-channel configuration enabling passage of the DNA substrate to the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Cascales
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
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Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) requires an alternative protein secretion system, ESX1, for virulence. Recently, Raghavan et al. (2008) reported a new regulatory circuit that may explain how ESX1 activity is controlled during infection. Mtb appears to regulate ESX1 by modulating transcription of associated genes rather than structural components of the secretion system itself.
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Atmakuri K, Cascales E, Burton OT, Banta LM, Christie PJ. Agrobacterium ParA/MinD-like VirC1 spatially coordinates early conjugative DNA transfer reactions. EMBO J 2007; 26:2540-51. [PMID: 17505518 PMCID: PMC1868908 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens translocates T-DNA through a polar VirB/D4 type IV secretion (T4S) system. VirC1, a factor required for efficient T-DNA transfer, bears a deviant Walker A and other sequence motifs characteristic of ParA and MinD ATPases. Here, we show that VirC1 promotes conjugative T-DNA transfer by stimulating generation of multiple copies per cell of the T-DNA substrate (T-complex) through pairwise interactions with the processing factors VirD2 relaxase, VirC2, and VirD1. VirC1 also associates with the polar membrane and recruits T-complexes to cell poles, the site of VirB/D4 T4S machine assembly. VirC1 Walker A mutations abrogate T-complex generation and polar recruitment, whereas the native protein recruits T-complexes to cell poles independently of other polar processing factors (VirC2, VirD1) or T4S components (VirD4 substrate receptor, VirB channel subunits). We propose that A. tumefaciens has appropriated a progenitor ParA/MinD-like ATPase to promote conjugative DNA transfer by: (i) nucleating relaxosome assembly at oriT-like T-DNA border sequences and (ii) spatially positioning the transfer intermediate at the cell pole to coordinate substrate-T4S channel docking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Departments of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Eric Cascales
- Departments of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Oliver T Burton
- Department of Biology, Williams College, Williamstown, MA, USA
| | - Lois M Banta
- Department of Biology, Williams College, Williamstown, MA, USA
| | - Peter J Christie
- Departments of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA. Tel.: +1 713 500 5440; Fax: +1 713 500 5499; E-mail:
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Abstract
Type IV secretion (T4S) systems are ancestrally related to bacterial conjugation machines. These systems assemble as a translocation channel, and often also as a surface filament or protein adhesin, at the envelopes of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. These organelles mediate the transfer of DNA and protein substrates to phylogenetically diverse prokaryotic and eukaryotic target cells. Many basic features of T4S are known, including structures of machine subunits, steps of machine assembly, substrates and substrate recognition mechanisms, and cellular consequences of substrate translocation. A recent advancement also has enabled definition of the translocation route for a DNA substrate through a T4S system of a Gram-negative bacterium. This review emphasizes the dynamics of assembly and function of model conjugation systems and the Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/D4 T4S system. We also summarize salient features of the increasingly studied effector translocator systems of mammalian pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Christie
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, UT-Houston Medical School, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
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Cascales E, Atmakuri K, Liu Z, Binns AN, Christie PJ. Agrobacterium tumefaciens oncogenic suppressors inhibit T-DNA and VirE2 protein substrate binding to the VirD4 coupling protein. Mol Microbiol 2005; 58:565-79. [PMID: 16194240 PMCID: PMC2749481 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04852.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens uses a type IV secretion (T4S) system composed of VirB proteins and VirD4 to deliver oncogenic DNA (T-DNA) and protein substrates to susceptible plant cells during the course of infection. Here, by use of the Transfer DNA ImmunoPrecipitation (TrIP) assay, we present evidence that the mobilizable plasmid RSF1010 (IncQ) follows the same translocation pathway through the VirB/D4 secretion channel as described previously for the T-DNA. The RSF1010 transfer intermediate and the Osa protein of plasmid pSa (IncW), related in sequence to the FiwA fertility inhibition factor of plasmid RP1 (IncPalpha), render A. tumefaciens host cells nearly avirulent. By use of a semi-quantitative TrIP assay, we show that both of these 'oncogenic suppressor factors' inhibit binding of T-DNA to the VirD4 substrate receptor. Both factors also inhibit binding of the VirE2 protein substrate to VirD4, as shown by coimmunoprecipitation and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays. Osa fused to the green fluorescent protein (GFP) also blocks T-DNA and VirE2 binding to VirD4, and Osa-GFP colocalizes with VirD4 at A. tumefaciens cell poles. RSF1010 and Osa interfere specifically with VirD4 receptor function and not with VirB channel activity, as shown by (i) TrIP and (ii) a genetic screen for effects of the oncogenic suppressors on pCloDF13 translocation through a chimeric secretion channel composed of the pCloDF13-encoded MobB receptor and VirB channel subunits. Our findings establish that a competing plasmid substrate and a plasmid fertility inhibition factor act on a common target, the T4S receptor, to inhibit docking of DNA and protein substrates to the translocation apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Cascales
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas-Houston, Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Krishnamohan Atmakuri
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas-Houston, Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Zhenying Liu
- Plant Science Institute, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, USA
| | - Andrew N. Binns
- Plant Science Institute, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, USA
| | - Peter J. Christie
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas-Houston, Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- For correspondence. E-mail ; Tel. (+1) 713 500 5440; Fax (+1) 713 500 5499
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Atmakuri K, Cascales E, Christie PJ. Energetic components VirD4, VirB11 and VirB4 mediate early DNA transfer reactions required for bacterial type IV secretion. Mol Microbiol 2005; 54:1199-211. [PMID: 15554962 PMCID: PMC3869561 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2004.04345.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria use type IV secretion systems (T4SS) to translocate DNA (T-DNA) and protein substrates across the cell envelope. By transfer DNA immunoprecipitation (TrIP), we recently showed that T-DNA translocates through the Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/D4 T4SS by forming close contacts sequentially with the VirD4 receptor, VirB11 ATPase, the inner membrane subunits VirB6 and VirB8 and, finally, VirB2 pilin and VirB9. Here, by TrIP, we show that nucleoside triphosphate binding site (Walker A motif) mutations do not disrupt VirD4 substrate binding or transfer to VirB11, suggesting that these early reactions proceed independently of ATP binding or hydrolysis. In contrast, VirD4, VirB11 and VirB4 Walker A mutations each arrest substrate transfer to VirB6 and VirB8, suggesting that these subunits energize this transfer reaction by an ATP-dependent mechanism. By co-immunoprecipitation, we supply evidence for VirD4 interactions with VirB4 and VirB11 independently of other T4SS subunits or intact Walker A motifs, and with the bitopic inner membrane subunit VirB10. We reconstituted substrate transfer from VirD4 to VirB11 and to VirB6 and VirB8 by co-synthesis of previously identified 'core' components of the VirB/D4 T4SS. Our findings define genetic requirements for DNA substrate binding and the early transfer reactions of a bacterial type IV translocation pathway.
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Abstract
Bacteria use type IV secretion systems (T4SS) to translocate macromolecular substrates destined for bacterial, plant or human target cells. The T4SS are medically important, contributing to virulence-gene spread, genome plasticity and the alteration of host cellular processes during infection. The T4SS are ancestrally related to bacterial conjugation machines, but present-day functions include (i) conjugal transfer of DNA by cell-to-cell contact, (ii) translocation of effector molecules to eukaryotic target cells, and (iii) DNA uptake from or release to the extracellular milieu. Rapid progress has been made toward identification of type IV secretion substrates and the requirements for substrate recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The University of Texas-Houston Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers oncogenic DNA and effector proteins to plant cells during the course of infection. Substrate translocation across the bacterial cell envelope is mediated by a type IV secretion (TFS) system composed of the VirB proteins, as well as VirD4, a member of a large family of inner membrane proteins implicated in the coupling of DNA transfer intermediates to the secretion machine. In this study, we demonstrate with novel cytological screens - a two-hybrid (C2H) assay and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) - and by immunoprecipitation of chemically cross-linked protein complexes that the VirE2 effector protein interacts directly with the VirD4 coupling protein at cell poles of A. tumefaciens. Analyses of truncation derivatives showed that VirE2 interacts via its C terminus with VirD4, and, further, an NH2-terminal membrane-spanning domain of VirD4 is dispensable for complex formation. VirE2 interacts with VirD4 independently of the virB-encoded transfer machine and T pilus, the putative periplasmic chaperones AcvB and VirJ, and the T-DNA transfer intermediate. Finally, VirE2 is recruited to polar-localized VirD4 as a complex with its stabilizing secretion chaperone VirE1, yet the effector-coupling protein interaction is not dependent on chaperone binding. Together, our findings establish for the first time that a protein substrate of a type IV secretion system is recruited to a member of the coupling protein superfamily.
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