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Salaün P, Fadel A, Pelaez-Fernandez M, Mouloud BE, Tahon JF, Volkringer C, Addad A, Woisel P, Le Fer G. Cooperative Synthesis of Raspberry-Like Covalent Organic Framework-Polymer Particles with a Radial Single-Crystal Grain Orientation. Small 2023:e2303697. [PMID: 37612799 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202303697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Despite many efforts devoted toward the design of covalent organic frameworks (COFs) at the framework level by selecting the building blocks, their organization in the nano to meso regimes is often neglected. Moreover, the importance of processability for their applications has recently emerged and the synthesis of COF nanostructures without agglomeration is still a challenge. Herein, the first example of hybrid COF-polymer particles for which polymers are used to manipulate the 2D COF growth along a specific direction is reported. The study examines how the nature, chain-end functionality, and molar mass of the polymer influence the shaping of hybrid 2D boronate ester-linked COF-polymer particles. Catechol-poly(N-butyl acrylate) leads to the self-assembly of crystallites into quasi-spherical structures while catechol-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) mediates the synthesis of raspberry-like COF-polymer particles with radial grain orientation. Scanning and transmission electron microscopies (SEM and TEM) and 4D-STEM-ACOM (automated crystal orientation mapping) highlight the single-crystal character of these domains with one plane family throughout the particles. Interestingly, the presence of PNIPAm on the particle surface allows their drying without co-crystallization and enables their resuspension. Kinetic investigations show that catechol-PnBuA acts as a modulator and catechol-PNIPAm induces a template effect, introducing supramolecular self-assembly properties into particles to create new morphologies with higher structural complexity, beyond the framework level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Salaün
- UMR 8207 - UMET - Unité Matériaux Et Transformations, CNRS, INRAE, University of Lille, Ecole Centrale, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Alexandre Fadel
- FR 2638 - IMEC - Institut Michel-Eugène Chevreul, CNRS, INRAE, Université d'Artois, University of Lille, F-59000, Ecole Centrale, Lille, France
| | - Mario Pelaez-Fernandez
- UMR 8207 - UMET - Unité Matériaux Et Transformations, CNRS, INRAE, University of Lille, Ecole Centrale, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Bahae-Eddine Mouloud
- UMR 8207 - UMET - Unité Matériaux Et Transformations, CNRS, INRAE, University of Lille, Ecole Centrale, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Jean-François Tahon
- UMR 8207 - UMET - Unité Matériaux Et Transformations, CNRS, INRAE, University of Lille, Ecole Centrale, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Christophe Volkringer
- UMR 8181 - UCCS - Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, CNRS, Univ. Artois, University of Lille, Centrale Lille, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Ahmed Addad
- UMR 8207 - UMET - Unité Matériaux Et Transformations, CNRS, INRAE, University of Lille, Ecole Centrale, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Patrice Woisel
- UMR 8207 - UMET - Unité Matériaux Et Transformations, CNRS, INRAE, University of Lille, Ecole Centrale, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Gaëlle Le Fer
- UMR 8207 - UMET - Unité Matériaux Et Transformations, CNRS, INRAE, University of Lille, Ecole Centrale, Lille, F-59000, France
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Pelaez-Fernandez M, Majerus B, Dufour R, Funes-Hernando D, Duvail JL, Henrard L, Arenal R. Tuning of Plasmonic Response in High Aspect-Ratio Au Nanowires through Laser Irradiation: A TEM-EELS Study. Microsc Microanal 2023; 29:378-379. [PMID: 37613323 DOI: 10.1093/micmic/ozad067.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mario Pelaez-Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-UZaragoza, Spain
| | - Bruno Majerus
- Department of Physics, University of Namur., Namur, Belgium
| | - Romain Dufour
- Department of Physics, University of Namur., Namur, Belgium
| | | | - Jean-Luc Duvail
- Institut des Matériaux Jean Rouxel, CNRS -Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Luc Henrard
- Department of Physics, University of Namur., Namur, Belgium
| | - Raul Arenal
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-UZaragoza, Spain
- ARAID Foundation, Zaragoza, Spain
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Pelaez-Fernandez M, Hettler S, Benito AM, Maser W, Arenal R. In-Depth Investigations of Graphene Oxide Reduction via in situ TEM Measurements. Microsc Microanal 2023; 29:1571-1572. [PMID: 37613762 DOI: 10.1093/micmic/ozad067.808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mario Pelaez-Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-U. Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Simon Hettler
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Ana M Benito
- Instituto de Carboquímica, CSIC, Zaragoza, Spain
| | | | - Raul Arenal
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-U. Zaragoza, Spain
- ARAID Foundation, Zaragoza, Spain
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Meloni M, Large MJ, González Domínguez JM, Victor-Román S, Fratta G, Istif E, Tomes O, Salvage JP, Ewels CP, Pelaez-Fernandez M, Arenal R, Benito A, Maser WK, King AAK, Ajayan PM, Ogilvie SP, Dalton AB. Explosive percolation yields highly-conductive polymer nanocomposites. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6872. [DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34631-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractExplosive percolation is an experimentally-elusive phenomenon where network connectivity coincides with onset of an additional modification of the system; materials with correlated localisation of percolating particles and emergent conductive paths can realise sharp transitions and high conductivities characteristic of the explosively-grown network. Nanocomposites present a structurally- and chemically-varied playground to realise explosive percolation in practically-applicable systems but this is yet to be exploited by design. Herein, we demonstrate composites of graphene oxide and synthetic polymer latex which form segregated networks, leading to low percolation threshold and localisation of conductive pathways. In situ reduction of the graphene oxide at temperatures of <150 °C drives chemical modification of the polymer matrix to produce species with phenolic groups, which are known crosslinking agents. This leads to conductivities exceeding those of dense-packed networks of reduced graphene oxide, illustrating the potential of explosive percolation by design to realise low-loading composites with dramatically-enhanced electrical transport properties.
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Pelaez-Fernandez M, Lin YC, Suenaga K, Arenal R. Optoelectronic Properties of Atomically Thin Mo xW (1-x)S 2 Nanoflakes Probed by Spatially-Resolved Monochromated EELS. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2021; 11:3218. [PMID: 34947566 PMCID: PMC8708971 DOI: 10.3390/nano11123218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Band gap engineering of atomically thin two-dimensional (2D) materials has attracted a huge amount of interest as a key aspect to the application of these materials in nanooptoelectronics and nanophotonics. Low-loss electron energy loss spectroscopy has been employed to perform a direct measurement of the band gap in atomically thin MoxW(1-x)S2 nanoflakes. The results show a bowing effect with the alloying degree, which fits previous studies focused on excitonic transitions. Additional properties regarding the Van Hove singularities in the density of states of these materials, as well as high energy excitonic transition, have been analysed as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Pelaez-Fernandez
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-U. de Zaragoza, Calle Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain;
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas, Universidad de Zaragoza, Calle Mariano Esquillor, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Yung-Chang Lin
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8565, Japan;
| | - Kazu Suenaga
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (ISIR-SANKEN), Osaka University, Osaka 567-0047, Japan;
| | - Raul Arenal
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-U. de Zaragoza, Calle Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain;
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas, Universidad de Zaragoza, Calle Mariano Esquillor, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
- ARAID Fundation, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
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Scotti A, Pelaez-Fernandez M, Gasser U, Fernandez-Nieves A. Osmotic pressure of suspensions comprised of charged microgels. Phys Rev E 2021; 103:012609. [PMID: 33601513 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.103.012609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We determine the osmotic pressure of microgel suspensions using membrane osmometry and dialysis, for microgels with different softnesses. Our measurements reveal that the osmotic pressure of solutions of both ionic and neutral microgels is determined by the free ions that leave the microgel periphery to maximize their entropy and not by the translational degrees of freedom of the microgels themselves. Furthermore, up to a given concentration it is energetically favorable for the microgels to maintain a constant volume without appreciable deswelling. The concentration where deswelling starts weakly depends on the crosslinker concentration, which affects the microgel dimension; we explain this by considering the dependence of the osmotic pressure and the microgel bulk modulus on the particle size.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Scotti
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - M Pelaez-Fernandez
- Department of Condensed Matter Physics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - U Gasser
- Laboratory for Neutron Scattering and Imaging, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - A Fernandez-Nieves
- Department of Condensed Matter Physics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA-Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avancats, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, 30332 Georgia, USA
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Nufer S, Lynch PJ, Large MJ, Ogilvie SP, Salvage JP, Pelaez-Fernandez M, Waters T, Jurewicz I, Muñoz E, Arenal R, Benito AM, Maser WK, Tagmatarchis N, Ewels CP, Brunton A, Dalton AB. Laser-Deposited Carbon Aerogel Derived from Graphene Oxide Enables NO 2-Selective Parts-per-Billion Sensing. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12:39541-39548. [PMID: 32697564 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c09112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Laser-deposited carbon aerogel is a low-density porous network of carbon clusters synthesized using a laser process. A one-step synthesis, involving deposition and annealing, results in the formation of a thin porous conductive film which can be applied as a chemiresistor. This material is sensitive to NO2 compared to ammonia and other volatile organic compounds and is able to detect ultra-low concentrations down to at least 10 parts-per-billion. The sensing mechanism, based on the solubility of NO2 in the water layer adsorbed on the aerogel, increases the usability of the sensor in practically relevant ambient environments. A heating step, achieved in tandem with a microheater, allows the recovery to the baseline, making it operable in real world environments. This, in combination with its low cost and scalable production, makes it promising for Internet-of-Things air quality monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Nufer
- M-Solv Ltd, Oxonian Park, Langford Locks, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1FP, U.K
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, U.K
| | - Peter J Lynch
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, U.K
| | - Matthew J Large
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, U.K
| | - Sean P Ogilvie
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, U.K
| | - Jonathan P Salvage
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Science, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, U.K
| | - Mario Pelaez-Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragon, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
| | - Thomas Waters
- Department of Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, U.K
| | - Izabela Jurewicz
- Department of Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, U.K
| | - Edgar Muñoz
- Instituto de Carboquímica ICB-CSIC, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
| | - Raul Arenal
- Fundacion ARAID, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
- Instituto de Ciencias de Materiales de Aragon, CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50009, Spain
| | - Ana M Benito
- Instituto de Carboquímica ICB-CSIC, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
| | | | - Nikos Tagmatarchis
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens 11635, Greece
| | - Christopher P Ewels
- Institute des Matériaux Jean Rouxel (IMN), CNRS UMR6502/Université de Nantes, Nantes 44322, France
| | - Adam Brunton
- M-Solv Ltd, Oxonian Park, Langford Locks, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1FP, U.K
| | - Alan B Dalton
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, U.K
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Kagkoura A, Pelaez-Fernandez M, Arenal R, Tagmatarchis N. Sulfur-doped graphene/transition metal dichalcogenide heterostructured hybrids with electrocatalytic activity toward the hydrogen evolution reaction. Nanoscale Adv 2019; 1:1489-1496. [PMID: 36132594 PMCID: PMC9418998 DOI: 10.1039/c8na00130h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
A facile route for the preparation of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) and tungsten disulfide (WS2), uniformly deposited onto sulfur-doped graphene (SG), is reported. The realization of the SG/MoS2 and SG/WS2 heterostructured hybrids was accomplished by employing microwave irradiation for the thermal decomposition of ammonium tetrathiomolybdate and tetrathiotungstate, respectively, in the presence of SG. Two different weight ratios between SG and the inorganic species were used, namely 3 : 1 and 1 : 1, yielding SG/MoS2 (3 : 1), SG/MoS2 (1 : 1), SG/WS2 (3 : 1) and SG/WS2 (1 : 1). SG and all newly developed hybrid materials were characterized by ATR-IR and Raman spectroscopy, TGA, HR-TEM and EELS. The electrocatalytic activity of the SG/MoS2 and SG/WS2 heterostructured hybrids was examined against the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and it was found that the presence of SG not only significantly improved the catalytic activity of MoS2 and WS2 but also made it comparable to that of commercial Pt/C. Specifically, hybrids containing higher amounts of SG, namely SG/MoS2 (3 : 1) and SG/WS2 (3 : 1), exhibited extremely low onset overpotentials of 26 and 140 mV vs. RHE, respectively. The latter results highlighted the beneficial role of SG as a substrate for immobilizing MoS2 and WS2 and stressed its significance for achieving optimum electrocatalytic performance toward the HER. Finally, examination of the Tafel slopes as extracted from the electrocatalytic polarization curves, manifested the adsorption of hydrogen as the rate-limiting step for SG/MoS2 (3 : 1), while for SG/WS2 (3 : 1) the electrochemical desorption of adsorbed hydrogen atoms to generate hydrogen was revealed to be the rate-limiting step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Kagkoura
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute, National Hellenic Research Foundation 48 Vassileos Constantinou Avenue 11635 Athens Greece
| | - Mario Pelaez-Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas, Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragon, Universidad de Zaragoza 50018 Zaragoza Spain
| | - Raul Arenal
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas, Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragon, Universidad de Zaragoza 50018 Zaragoza Spain
- ARAID Foundation 50018 Zaragoza Spain
- Instituto de Ciencias de Materiales de Aragon, CSIC-U. de Zaragoza Calle Pedro Cerbuna 12 50009 Zaragoza Spain
| | - Nikos Tagmatarchis
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute, National Hellenic Research Foundation 48 Vassileos Constantinou Avenue 11635 Athens Greece
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Funes-Hernando D, Pelaez-Fernandez M, Winterauer D, Mevellec JY, Arenal R, Batten T, Humbert B, Duvail JL. Coaxial nanowires as plasmon-mediated remote nanosensors. Nanoscale 2018; 10:6437-6444. [PMID: 29565076 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr00125a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This study reports on the plasmon-mediated remote Raman sensing promoted by specially designed coaxial nanowires. This unusual geometry for Raman study is based on the separation, by several micrometres, of the excitation laser spot, on one tip of the nanowire, and the Raman detection at the other tip. The very weak efficiency of Raman emission makes it challenging in a remote configuration. For the proof-of-concept, we designed coaxial nanowires consisting of a gold core to propagate surface plasmon polaritons and a Raman-emitting shell of poly(3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene). The success of the fabrication was demonstrated by correlating, for the same single nanowire, a morphological analysis by electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy analysis. Importantly for probing the remote-Raman effect, the original hard template-based process allows one to control the location of the polymer shell all along the nanowire, or only close to one or the two nanowire tips. Such all-in-one single nanowires could have applications in the remote detection of photo-degradable substances and for exploring 1D nanosources for integrated photonic and plasmonic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Funes-Hernando
- Institut des Matériaux Jean Rouxel (IMN), UMR 6502 CNRS and Université de Nantes, 2 rue de la Houssinière, 44322 Nantes, France.
| | - M Pelaez-Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas, Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragon, Universidad de Zaragoza, c/ Mariano Esquillor Edificio I+D, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - D Winterauer
- Renishaw plc, New Mills, Wotton-under-Edge, GL12 8JR, UK
| | - J-Y Mevellec
- Institut des Matériaux Jean Rouxel (IMN), UMR 6502 CNRS and Université de Nantes, 2 rue de la Houssinière, 44322 Nantes, France.
| | - R Arenal
- Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas, Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragon, Universidad de Zaragoza, c/ Mariano Esquillor Edificio I+D, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain and ARAID Foundation, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - T Batten
- Renishaw plc, New Mills, Wotton-under-Edge, GL12 8JR, UK
| | - B Humbert
- Institut des Matériaux Jean Rouxel (IMN), UMR 6502 CNRS and Université de Nantes, 2 rue de la Houssinière, 44322 Nantes, France.
| | - J L Duvail
- Institut des Matériaux Jean Rouxel (IMN), UMR 6502 CNRS and Université de Nantes, 2 rue de la Houssinière, 44322 Nantes, France.
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Pelaez-Fernandez M, Souslov A, Lyon LA, Goldbart PM, Fernandez-Nieves A. Impact of single-particle compressibility on the fluid-solid phase transition for ionic microgel suspensions. Phys Rev Lett 2015; 114:098303. [PMID: 25793859 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.114.098303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We study ionic microgel suspensions composed of swollen particles for various single-particle stiffnesses. We measure the osmotic pressure π of these suspensions and show that it is dominated by the contribution of free ions in solution. As this ionic osmotic pressure depends on the volume fraction of the suspension ϕ, we can determine ϕ from π, even at volume fractions so high that the microgel particles are compressed. We find that the width of the fluid-solid phase coexistence, measured using ϕ, is larger than its hard-sphere value for the stiffer microgels that we study and progressively decreases for softer microgels. For sufficiently soft microgels, the suspensions are fluidlike, irrespective of volume fraction. By calculating the dependence on ϕ of the mean volume of a microgel particle, we show that the behavior of the phase-coexistence width correlates with whether or not the microgel particles are compressed at the volume fractions corresponding to fluid-solid phase coexistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Pelaez-Fernandez
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, 837 State Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Anton Souslov
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, 837 State Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - L A Lyon
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - P M Goldbart
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, 837 State Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - A Fernandez-Nieves
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, 837 State Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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