The Perception of Water Contamination and Risky Consumption in El Salvador from a Community Clinical Psychology Perspective

This study was carried out as part of the international cooperation project “Agua Futura” for the improvement of water resource management and the promotion of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) behaviors in rural communities of Central America. Given the relevant healthcare problem of water pollution, especially in El Salvador, the aim was to detect some key factors affecting the perception of water contamination and its risky consumption from a community clinical psychological perspective. Ninety rural inhabitants of El Salvador were administered a structured interview exploring their perceptions about water quality and the impact of water consumption on health. Data were analyzed through a computer-aided thematic analysis—complemented by a qualitative analysis—allowing the detection of sense-making processes based on lexical variability. Different themes were identified with regard to the perception of water quality (i.e., mistrust, danger, and safety) and the beliefs about the impact of water consumption on health (i.e., rationalization, denial, awareness, displacement, and isolation of affect). The results showed heterogeneous perspectives about water quality and sanitation. However, the perceived negative impact of water consumption on health was mostly denied or minimized through massive distortions. Overall, the study highlights the role of defensive patterns in facing issues of water contamination, which may prevent the community from adopting healthy behaviors and adequate water management behaviors.

Adaptive behavioural coping strategies as reaction to COVID-19 social distancing in Italy

OBJECTIVE

Social distancing, as experienced by the Italian population during the COVID-19 outbreak, generated the long-term activation of stress-response in individuals. This has been a crucial opportunity to study the coping strategies that people put in place to adapt their lives and habits to such a unique condition. For this reason, we have investigated both emotion-focused and problem-oriented coping strategies among the Italian population by relating them to other structural factors, such as social, economic and cultural conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

More than 140,000 online interviews were collected in Italy from March 22 to April 2, 2020. This large dataset was used to carry out multivariate statistical data analysis with the aim of creating behavioral profiles, starting from coping parameters and other information. This technique has produced an association, showing a good level of statistical significance, between coping strategies and reactions to social distancing, due to the health emergency, during the data collection phase.

RESULTS

Two coping indicators - problem-oriented and focused on positive emotions coping strategies - were selected as objective variables in a "decision tree" modelling. The results have shown a link between individual factors (i.e., atmosphere at home) and educational and social factors (i.e., compliance with restrictions during the health emergency).

CONCLUSIONS

The reduction of social interaction had quite a significant impact on people's behavior; furthermore, coping strategies have played a crucial role in facing this stressor. For both the selected coping indicators, the best predictor was the atmosphere perceived at home. Moreover, the respondents' previous experiences have played a relevant role in the acceptance of new rules imposed by the government. This information can be useful in planning future social policies, both at national and international level, during such peculiar times.

A nation-wide survey on emotional and psychological impacts of COVID-19 social distancing

OBJECTIVE

Social distancing is crucial in order to flatten the curve of COVID-19 virus spreading. Isolation, scarcity of resources and the lack of social contacts may have produced a negative impact on people's emotions and psychological well-being. This study aims to explore the reasons and the ways through which social distancing generates negative emotions in individuals who experienced the lockdown. To a larger extent, the objective is to check the existence of relations between negative emotions and the satisfaction of basic needs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In Italy 140,656 online interviews were collected from March 22 to April 2, 2020. Data analysis was carried out using mono and bivariate statistical analysis, K-means clustering and the Principal Components Analysis (PCA). The parameters for the identification of six clusters were: the intensity of the respondent's basic emotions and the layers of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

RESULTS

The majority of people involved in an emergency situation, implying a collapse of social contacts, experience some kind of emotional reactions. In our study, we found a correlation between basic emotions and Maslow's hierarchy of needs. In times of crisis, the most basic needs are the physiological ones. Fear, anger and sadness are predominant in all population groups; anger and disgust mainly appear when people are exposed to the risk of not being able to meet subsistence needs, thus perceiving a lack of economic security.

CONCLUSIONS

The well-known Maslow's theory of human needs seems to fit well with the outbreak of negative emotions in the context of COVID-19. This study demonstrates the existence of links between negative emotions and primary needs that mainly refer to the first three levels of Maslow's pyramid. As a result of COVID-19 worldwide pandemic, many people have been sucked into the bottom layers of the pyramid. This change in individual basic needs has triggered a relevant transformation in individual emotional status and a shift towards negative emotions.