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Garbarino O, Valenti GE, Monteleone L, Pietra G, Mingari MC, Benzi A, Bruzzone S, Ravera S, Leardi R, Farinini E, Vernazza S, Grottoli M, Marengo B, Domenicotti C. PLX4032 resistance of patient-derived melanoma cells: crucial role of oxidative metabolism. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1210130. [PMID: 37534247 PMCID: PMC10391174 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1210130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Malignant melanoma is the most lethal form of skin cancer which shows BRAF mutation in 50% of patients. In this context, the identification of BRAFV600E mutation led to the development of specific inhibitors like PLX4032. Nevertheless, although its initial success, its clinical efficacy is reduced after six-months of therapy leading to cancer relapse due to the onset of drug resistance. Therefore, investigating the mechanisms underlying PLX4032 resistance is fundamental to improve therapy efficacy. In this context, several models of PLX4032 resistance have been developed, but the discrepancy between in vitro and in vivo results often limits their clinical translation. Methods The herein reported model has been realized by treating with PLX4032, for six months, patient-derived BRAF-mutated melanoma cells in order to obtain a reliable model of acquired PLX4032 resistance that could be predictive of patient's treatment responses. Metabolic analyses were performed by evaluating glucose consumption, ATP synthesis, oxygen consumption rate, P/O ratio, ATP/AMP ratio, lactate release, lactate dehydrogenase activity, NAD+/NADH ratio and pyruvate dehydrogenase activity in parental and drug resistant melanoma cells. The intracellular oxidative state was analyzed in terms of reactive oxygen species production, glutathione levels and NADPH/NADP+ ratio. In addition, a principal component analysis was conducted in order to identify the variables responsible for the acquisition of targeted therapy resistance. Results Collectively, our results demonstrate, for the first time in patient-derived melanoma cells, that the rewiring of oxidative phosphorylation and the maintenance of pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and of high glutathione levels contribute to trigger the onset of PLX4032 resistance. Conclusion Therefore, it is possible to hypothesize that inhibitors of glutathione biosynthesis and/or pyruvate dehydrogenase activity could be used in combination with PLX4032 to overcome drug resistance of BRAF-mutated melanoma patients. However, the identification of new adjuvant targets related to drug-induced metabolic reprogramming could be crucial to counteract the failure of targeted therapy in metastatic melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ombretta Garbarino
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Giulia Elda Valenti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Monteleone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Gabriella Pietra
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Mingari
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
| | - Andrea Benzi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Biochemistry Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Santina Bruzzone
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Biochemistry Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Silvia Ravera
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Human Anatomy Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | | | | | - Stefania Vernazza
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Melania Grottoli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Barbara Marengo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Cinzia Domenicotti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, General Pathology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
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Parodi M, Astigiano S, Carrega P, Pietra G, Vitale C, Damele L, Grottoli M, Guevara Lopez MDLL, Ferracini R, Bertolini G, Roato I, Vitale M, Orecchia P. Murine models to study human NK cells in human solid tumors. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1209237. [PMID: 37388731 PMCID: PMC10301748 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1209237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the first studies, the mouse models have provided crucial support for the most important discoveries on NK cells, on their development, function, and circulation within normal and tumor tissues. Murine tumor models were initially set to study murine NK cells, then, ever more sophisticated human-in-mice models have been developed to investigate the behavior of human NK cells and minimize the interferences from the murine environment. This review presents an overview of the models that have been used along time to study NK cells, focusing on the most popular NOG and NSG models, which work as recipients for the preparation of human-in-mice tumor models, the study of transferred human NK cells, and the evaluation of various enhancers of human NK cell function, including cytokines and chimeric molecules. Finally, an overview of the next generation humanized mice is also provided along with a discussion on how traditional and innovative in-vivo and in-vitro approaches could be integrated to optimize effective pre-clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Parodi
- Unità Operativa UO Patologia e Immunologia Sperimentale, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
| | - Simonetta Astigiano
- Animal Facility, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Paolo Carrega
- Laboratory of Immunology and Biotherapy, Department of Human Pathology, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Gabriella Pietra
- Unità Operativa UO Patologia e Immunologia Sperimentale, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Università di Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Chiara Vitale
- Unità Operativa UO Patologia e Immunologia Sperimentale, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Università di Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Laura Damele
- Unità Operativa UO Patologia e Immunologia Sperimentale, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
| | - Melania Grottoli
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Università di Genova, Genova, Italy
| | | | - Riccardo Ferracini
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Bone and Dental Bioengineering Laboratory, C.I.R Dental School, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Department of Surgical Sciences (DISC), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Giulia Bertolini
- “Epigenomics and Biomarkers of Solid Tumors”, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Roato
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Bone and Dental Bioengineering Laboratory, C.I.R Dental School, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Massimo Vitale
- Unità Operativa UO Patologia e Immunologia Sperimentale, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
| | - Paola Orecchia
- Unità Operativa UO Patologia e Immunologia Sperimentale, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
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Di Matteo S, Munari E, Fiore PF, Santopolo S, Sampaoli C, Pelosi A, Chouaib S, Tumino N, Vacca P, Mariotti FR, Ebert S, Machwirth M, Haas D, Pezzullo M, Pietra G, Grottoli M, Buart S, Mortier E, Maggi E, Moretta L, Caruana I, Azzarone B. The roles of different forms of IL-15 in human melanoma progression. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1183668. [PMID: 37334356 PMCID: PMC10272795 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1183668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Melanoma is a lethal skin cancer, and the risk of developing it is increased by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The production of cytokines such as interleukin-15 (IL-15), induced by the exposure of skin cells to UV rays, could also promote melanoma development. The aim of this study is to investigate the possible role of Interleukin-15/Interleukin-15 Receptor α (IL-15/IL-15Rα) complexes in melanoma development. Methods The expression of IL-15/IL-15Rα complexes by melanoma cells was evaluated both ex vivo and in vitro by tissue microarray, PCR, and flow cytometry. The presence of the soluble complex (sIL-15/IL-15Rα) in the plasma of metastatic melanoma patients was detected using an ELISA assay. Subsequently, we investigated the impact of natural killer (NK) cell activation after rIL-2 starvation followed by exposure to the sIL-15/IL-15Rα complex. Finally, by analyzing public datasets, we studied the correlation between IL-15 and IL-15Rα expressions and melanoma stage, NK and T-cell markers, and overall survival (OS). Results Analysis of a melanoma tissue microarray shows a significant increase in the number of IL-15+ tumor cells from the benign nevi to metastatic melanoma stages. Metastatic melanoma cell lines express a phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA)-cleavable membrane-bound IL-15 (mbIL-15), whereas cultures from primary melanomas express a PMA-resistant isoform. Further analysis revealed that 26% of metastatic patients present with consistently high plasmatic levels of sIL-15/IL-15Rα. When the recombinant soluble human IL-15/IL-15Rα complex is added to briefly starved rIL-2-expanded NK cells, these cells exhibit strongly reduced proliferation and levels of cytotoxic activity against K-562 and NALM-18 target cells. The analysis of public gene expression datasets revealed that high IL-15 and IL-15Rα intra-tumoral production correlates with the high levels of expression of CD5+ and NKp46+ (T and NK markers) and significantly correlates with a better OS in stages II and III, but not in stage IV. Conclusions Membrane-bound and secreted IL-15/IL-15Rα complexes are continuously present during progression in melanoma. It is notable that, although IL-15/IL-15Rα initially promoted the production of cytotoxic T and NK cells, at stage IV promotion of the development of anergic and dysfunctional cytotoxic NK cells was observed. In a subgroup of melanoma metastatic patients, the continuous secretion of high amounts of the soluble complex could represent a novel NK cell immune escape mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Di Matteo
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Munari
- Pathology Unit, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Piera Filomena Fiore
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Santopolo
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Camilla Sampaoli
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Pelosi
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Salem Chouaib
- Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale Unitè Mixte Rechercce (INSERM UMR) 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Cancer Immunotherapy, Gustave Roussy, École Pratique des Hautes Études (EPHE), Faculty De Médecine Univ. Paris-Sud, University Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
- Thumbay Research Institute for Precision Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
| | - Nicola Tumino
- Immunology Research Area, Innate Lymphoid Cells Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Vacca
- Immunology Research Area, Innate Lymphoid Cells Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Romana Mariotti
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Stefan Ebert
- Department of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus Machwirth
- Department of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Dorothee Haas
- Department of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Marco Pezzullo
- Core Facility, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriella Pietra
- Department of Experimental Medicine (DiMES), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Immunology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Melania Grottoli
- Immunology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Stephanie Buart
- Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale Unitè Mixte Rechercce (INSERM UMR) 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Cancer Immunotherapy, Gustave Roussy, École Pratique des Hautes Études (EPHE), Faculty De Médecine Univ. Paris-Sud, University Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Erwan Mortier
- Nantes Université, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), Inserm, CRCI2NA, Nantes, France
- LabEx IGO, Immunotherapy, Graft, Oncology, Nantes, France
| | - Enrico Maggi
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Moretta
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Ignazio Caruana
- Department of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Bruno Azzarone
- Tumor Immunology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
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Grottoli M, Carrega P, Zullo L, Dellepiane C, Rossi G, Parisi F, Barletta G, Zinoli L, Coco S, Alama A, Marconi S, Parodi M, Orecchia P, Bassi S, Vitale M, Mingari MC, Pfeffer U, Genova C, Pietra G. Immune Checkpoint Blockade: A Strategy to Unleash the Potential of Natural Killer Cells in the Anti-Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14205046. [PMID: 36291830 PMCID: PMC9599824 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14205046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) with antibodies targeting CTLA-4 (Cytotoxic Lymphocyte Antigen 4) and/or programmed death-1 protein (PD-1)/programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) has significantly modified the therapeutic landscape of a broad range of human tumor types, including advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Despite great advances of checkpoint immunotherapies, a minority of NSCLC patients (<20%) respond and/or experience long-term clinical benefits from these treatments. Limited response rates of T cell–based checkpoint immunotherapies suggest the presence of other checkpoints able to inhibit effective anti-tumor immune responses. Natural Killer (NK) cells represent a promising target for tumor immunotherapies, particularly against tumors that escape T-cell-mediated control. Like T cell function, NK cell function is also regulated by inhibitory immune-checkpoint molecules. In this review, we will provide an overview of the rationale, mechanisms of action, and clinical efficacy of these NK cell-based checkpoint therapy approaches. Finally, the future directions and current enhancements planned will be discussed. Abstract Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) immunotherapy has represented a breakthrough in cancer treatment. Clinical use of ICIs has shown an acceptable safety profile and promising antitumor activity. Nevertheless, some patients do not obtain clinical benefits after ICIs therapy. In order to improve and cure an increasing number of patients, the field has moved toward the discovery of new ICIs expressed by cells of innate immunity with an elevated inherent antitumor activity, such as natural killer cells. This review will focus on the recent findings concerning the role of classical and non-classical immune checkpoint molecules and receptors that regulate natural killer cell function, as potential targets, and their future clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melania Grottoli
- UO Immunologia IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Paolo Carrega
- Laboratory of Immunology and Biotherapy, Department of Human Pathology, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy
| | - Lodovica Zullo
- UO Oncologia Medica 2 IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Chiara Dellepiane
- UO Oncologia Medica 2 IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Giovanni Rossi
- UO Oncologia Medica 2 IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Francesca Parisi
- UO Oncologia Medica 2 IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Giulia Barletta
- UO Oncologia Medica 2 IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Linda Zinoli
- DiMI, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Genova, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Simona Coco
- UOS Tumori Polmonari IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Angela Alama
- UOS Tumori Polmonari IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Silvia Marconi
- UOS Tumori Polmonari IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Monica Parodi
- UO Immunologia IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Paola Orecchia
- UO Immunologia IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Sara Bassi
- UO Immunologia IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Massimo Vitale
- UO Immunologia IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Mingari
- UO Immunologia IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
- DiMES, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Ulrich Pfeffer
- Laboratory of Tumor Epigenetics IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Carlo Genova
- DiMI, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Genova, 16132 Genova, Italy
- UO Clinica di Oncologia Medica IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
- Correspondence: (C.G.); (G.P.)
| | - Gabriella Pietra
- UO Immunologia IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy
- DiMES, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova, 16132 Genova, Italy
- Correspondence: (C.G.); (G.P.)
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