1
|
Rakofsky JJ, Lucido MJ, Dunlop BW. All studies are not created equal: A systematic narrative review of bipolar depression clinical trial inclusion/exclusion rules and baseline severity scores. J Affect Disord 2023; 333:130-139. [PMID: 37080495 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several bipolar depression treatment guidelines have been designed to assist clinicians with medication selection. When ranking medications, none explicitly considered the inclusion/exclusion criteria or baseline severity scores of the reviewed clinical trials. This article aimed to determine if sufficient differences exist in these variables to justify their consideration when designing treatment guidelines. METHODS Using Ovid and PubMed databases in May and September 2022, all published, short-term cross-over or parallel-group design studies comparing second generation antipsychotics (SGAs), mood stabilizers, or antidepressants versus placebo in bipolar depressed patients were identified. Included studies must have enrolled adult bipolar I/II depressed patients, randomized patients into two or more treatment groups, utilized a double-blind, prospective design written in English, and had primary outcome results that were statistically significant in favor of the investigational treatment. RESULTS Thirty studies met eligibility criteria, comprising a total of 8791 patients. Among those studies, there were seventeen antipsychotic trials, six lithium trials, one lamotrigine trial, three valproate trials, two carbamazepine trials, and two antidepressant trials. The analysis revealed substantial differences among the studies. Although this was seen among all the different drug classes, these differences are clearest when comparing the lithium trials to those of the SGAs. LIMITATIONS Limitations included the selection of severity scores from the treatment arm with the most severe score and the exclusive focus on mood stabilizers, antidepressants, and SGAs. CONCLUSIONS Severity of the enrolled patient sample and treatment-resistance should be considered in addition to other factors when ranking medications in bipolar depression treatment guidelines.
Collapse
|
2
|
Bekhbat M, Li Z, Mehta ND, Treadway MT, Lucido MJ, Woolwine BJ, Haroon E, Miller AH, Felger JC. Functional connectivity in reward circuitry and symptoms of anhedonia as therapeutic targets in depression with high inflammation: evidence from a dopamine challenge study. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:4113-4121. [PMID: 35927580 PMCID: PMC9718669 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01715-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Increased inflammation in major depressive disorder (MDD) has been associated with low functional connectivity (FC) in corticostriatal reward circuits and symptoms of anhedonia, relationships which may involve the impact of inflammation on synthesis and release of dopamine. To test this hypothesis while establishing a platform to examine target engagement of potential therapies in patients with increased inflammation, medically stable unmedicated adult MDD outpatients enrolled to have a range of inflammation (as indexed by plasma C-reactive protein [CRP] levels) were studied at two visits involving acute challenge with the dopamine precursor levodopa (L-DOPA; 250 mg) and placebo (double-blind, randomized order ~1-week apart). The primary outcome of resting-state (rs)FC in a classic ventral striatum to ventromedial prefrontal cortex reward circuit was calculated using a targeted, a priori approach. Data available both pre- and post-challenge (n = 31/40) established stability of rsFC across visits and determined CRP > 2 mg/L as a cut-point for patients exhibiting positive FC responses (post minus pre) to L-DOPA versus placebo (p < 0.01). Higher post-L-DOPA FC in patients with CRP > 2 mg/L was confirmed in all patients (n = 40) where rsFC data were available post-challenge (B = 0.15, p = 0.006), and in those with task-based (tb)FC during reward anticipation (B = 0.15, p = 0.013). While effort-based motivation outside the scanner positively correlated with rsFC independent of treatment or CRP, change in anhedonia scores negatively correlated with rsFC after L-DOPA only in patients with CRP > 2 mg/L (r = -0.56, p = 0.012). FC in reward circuitry should be further validated in larger samples as a biomarker of target engagement for potential treatments including dopaminergic agents in MDD patients with increased inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mandakh Bekhbat
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Zhihao Li
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- School of Psychology and Sociology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, Guangdong Sheng, China
| | - Namrataa D Mehta
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Michael T Treadway
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Michael J Lucido
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Bobbi J Woolwine
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Ebrahim Haroon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Andrew H Miller
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Jennifer C Felger
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rakofsky JJ, Lucido MJ, Dunlop BW. Lithium in the treatment of acute bipolar depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord 2022; 308:268-280. [PMID: 35429528 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate lithium in the treatment of acute bipolar depression. METHODS We conducted a systematic literature review for: 1) cross-over or parallel-group design studies comparing lithium response in bipolar versus unipolar depressed patients, and 2) parallel group studies of bipolar depressed patients comparing lithium versus placebo or other psychotropics. Meta-analyses using response rate as the primary outcome were conducted to evaluate lithium's efficacy. RESULTS The literature search yielded 947 records. Ultimately, 17 studies were included, totaling 1545 patients, including 676 who received lithium. The overall summary effects reveal that there were no statistically significant differences between lithium versus antidepressants or placebo, however, lithium performed numerically worse than antidepressants (RR = 0.61; 95%CI, 0.37-1.02; p = 0.06) but better than placebo (RR = 1.18; 95%CI, 0.99-1.41; p = 0.07). The specificity of lithium for bipolar versus unipolar depression was not supported in the primary analysis of all trials, though an analysis limited to double-blinded, monotherapy, cross-over studies revealed a statistically significant result supporting lithium's efficacy for those with bipolar depression. LIMITATIONS Limitations include study selection rules, the use of response rates rather than remission rates or continuous score outcomes, and the small number of studies included in each meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS These meta-analyses do not support lithium as a first-line treatment for acute bipolar depression. However, the bipolar vs. unipolar sensitivity analysis and the modest, though non-significant advantage over placebo suggest lithium may still be a viable treatment option. Larger and more rigorously-designed studies are needed to determine lithium's full range of efficacy relative to placebo and other psychotropics.
Collapse
|
4
|
Bekhbat M, Li Z, Mehta ND, Treadway MT, Lucido MJ, Woolwine BJ, Haroon E, Miller AH, Felger JC. Correction to: Functional connectivity in reward circuitry and symptoms of anhedonia as therapeutic targets in depression with high inflammation: evidence from a dopamine challenge study. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:4122. [PMID: 36065017 PMCID: PMC9718661 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01754-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mandakh Bekhbat
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Zhihao Li
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA ,grid.263488.30000 0001 0472 9649School of Psychology and Sociology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060 Guangdong Sheng China
| | - Namrataa D. Mehta
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA ,grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Neuroscience Graduate Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Michael T. Treadway
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA ,grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA ,grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Michael J. Lucido
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Bobbi J. Woolwine
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Ebrahim Haroon
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA ,grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Andrew H. Miller
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA ,grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Jennifer C. Felger
- grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA ,grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502The Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lucido MJ, Bekhbat M, Goldsmith DR, Treadway MT, Haroon E, Felger JC, Miller AH. Aiding and Abetting Anhedonia: Impact of Inflammation on the Brain and Pharmacological Implications. Pharmacol Rev 2021; 73:1084-1117. [PMID: 34285088 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.120.000043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Exogenous administration of inflammatory stimuli to humans and laboratory animals and chronic endogenous inflammatory states lead to motivational deficits and ultimately anhedonia, a core and disabling symptom of depression present in multiple other psychiatric disorders. Inflammation impacts neurotransmitter systems and neurocircuits in subcortical brain regions including the ventral striatum, which serves as an integration point for reward processing and motivational decision-making. Many mechanisms contribute to these effects of inflammation, including decreased synthesis, release and reuptake of dopamine, increased synaptic and extrasynaptic glutamate, and activation of kynurenine pathway metabolites including quinolinic acid. Neuroimaging data indicate that these inflammation-induced neurotransmitter effects manifest as decreased activation of ventral striatum and decreased functional connectivity in reward circuitry involving ventral striatum and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Neurocircuitry changes in turn mediate nuanced effects on motivation that include decreased willingness to expend effort for reward while maintaining the ability to experience reward. Taken together, the data reveal an inflammation-induced pathophysiologic phenotype that is agnostic to diagnosis. Given the many mechanisms involved, this phenotype represents an opportunity for development of novel and/or repurposed pharmacological strategies that target inflammation and associated cellular and systemic immunometabolic changes and their downstream effects on the brain. To date, clinical trials have failed to capitalize on the unique nature of this transdiagnostic phenotype, leaving the field bereft of interpretable data for meaningful clinical application. However, novel trial designs incorporating established targets in the brain and/or periphery using relevant outcome variables (e.g., anhedonia) are the future of targeted therapy in psychiatry. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Emerging understanding of mechanisms by which peripheral inflammation can affect the brain and behavior has created unprecedented opportunities for development of pharmacological strategies to treat deficits in motivation including anhedonia, a core and disabling symptom of depression well represented in multiple psychiatric disorders. Mechanisms include inflammation and cellular and systemic immunometabolism and alterations in dopamine, glutamate, and kynurenine metabolites, revealing a target-rich environment that nevertheless has yet to be fully exploited by current clinical trial designs and drugs employed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Lucido
- Emory Behavioral Immunology Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (M.J.L., M.B., D.R.G., E.H., J.C.F., A.H.M.); and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (M.T.T.)
| | - Mandy Bekhbat
- Emory Behavioral Immunology Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (M.J.L., M.B., D.R.G., E.H., J.C.F., A.H.M.); and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (M.T.T.)
| | - David R Goldsmith
- Emory Behavioral Immunology Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (M.J.L., M.B., D.R.G., E.H., J.C.F., A.H.M.); and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (M.T.T.)
| | - Michael T Treadway
- Emory Behavioral Immunology Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (M.J.L., M.B., D.R.G., E.H., J.C.F., A.H.M.); and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (M.T.T.)
| | - Ebrahim Haroon
- Emory Behavioral Immunology Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (M.J.L., M.B., D.R.G., E.H., J.C.F., A.H.M.); and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (M.T.T.)
| | - Jennifer C Felger
- Emory Behavioral Immunology Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (M.J.L., M.B., D.R.G., E.H., J.C.F., A.H.M.); and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (M.T.T.)
| | - Andrew H Miller
- Emory Behavioral Immunology Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (M.J.L., M.B., D.R.G., E.H., J.C.F., A.H.M.); and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (M.T.T.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Lucido MJ, Orlando BJ, Vecchio AJ, Malkowski MG. Crystal Structure of Aspirin-Acetylated Human Cyclooxygenase-2: Insight into the Formation of Products with Reversed Stereochemistry. Biochemistry 2016; 55:1226-38. [PMID: 26859324 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b01378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs target the cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2) to block the formation of prostaglandins. Aspirin is unique in that it covalently modifies each enzyme by acetylating Ser-530 within the cyclooxygenase active site. Acetylation of COX-1 leads to complete loss of activity, while acetylation of COX-2 results in the generation of the monooxygenated product 15(R)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15R-HETE). Ser-530 has also been shown to influence the stereochemistry for the addition of oxygen to the prostaglandin product. We determined the crystal structures of S530T murine (mu) COX-2, aspirin-acetylated human (hu) COX-2, and huCOX-2 in complex with salicylate to 1.9, 2.0, and 2.4 Å, respectively. The structures reveal that (1) the acetylated Ser-530 completely blocks access to the hydrophobic groove, (2) the observed binding pose of salicylate is reflective of the enzyme-inhibitor complex prior to acetylation, and (3) the observed Thr-530 rotamer in the S530T muCOX-2 crystal structure does not impede access to the hydrophobic groove. On the basis of these structural observations, along with functional analysis of the S530T/G533V double mutant, we propose a working hypothesis for the generation of 15R-HETE by aspirin-acetylated COX-2. We also observe differential acetylation of COX-2 purified in various detergent systems and nanodiscs, indicating that detergent and lipid binding within the membrane-binding domain of the enzyme alters the rate of the acetylation reaction in vitro.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Lucido
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo and Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute , Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Benjamin J Orlando
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo and Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute , Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Alex J Vecchio
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo and Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute , Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Michael G Malkowski
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo and Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute , Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Orlando BJ, Lucido MJ, Malkowski MG. The structure of ibuprofen bound to cyclooxygenase-2. J Struct Biol 2014; 189:62-6. [PMID: 25463020 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2014.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and COX-2) catalyze the rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins, and are the pharmacological targets of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and COX-2 selective inhibitors (coxibs). Ibuprofen (IBP) is one of the most commonly available over-the-counter pharmaceuticals in the world. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of IBP are thought to arise from inhibition of COX-2 rather than COX-1. While an X-ray crystal structure of IBP bound to COX-1 has been solved, no such structure exists for the cognate isoform COX-2. We have determined the crystal structure of muCOX-2 with a racemic mixture of (R/S)-IBP. Our structure reveals that only the S-isomer of IBP was bound, indicating that the S-isomer possesses higher affinity for COX-2 than the R-isomer. Mutational analysis of Arg-120 and Tyr-355 at the entrance of the cyclooxygenase channel confirmed their role in binding and inhibition of COX-2 by IBP. Our results provide the first atomic level detail of the interaction between IBP and COX-2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Orlando
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo and the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, 700 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Michael J Lucido
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo and the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, 700 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Michael G Malkowski
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo and the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, 700 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Orlando BJ, McDougle DR, Lucido MJ, Eng ET, Graham LA, Schneider C, Stokes DL, Das A, Malkowski MG. Cyclooxygenase-2 catalysis and inhibition in lipid bilayer nanodiscs. Arch Biochem Biophys 2014; 546:33-40. [PMID: 24503478 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2014.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 01/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and COX-2) oxygenate arachidonic acid (AA) to generate prostaglandins. The enzymes associate with one leaflet of the membrane bilayer. We utilized nanodisc technology to investigate the function of human (hu) COX-2 and murine (mu) COX-2 in a lipid bilayer environment. huCOX-2 and muCOX-2 were incorporated into nanodiscs composed of POPC, POPS, DOPC, or DOPS phospholipids. Size-exclusion chromatography and negative stain electron microscopy confirm that a single COX-2 homodimer is incorporated into the nanodisc scaffold. Nanodisc-reconstituted COX-2 exhibited similar kinetic profiles for the oxygenation of AA, eicosapentaenoic acid, and 1-arachidonoyl glycerol compared to those derived using detergent solubilized enzyme. Moreover, changing the phospholipid composition of the nanodisc did not alter the ability of COX-2 to oxygenate AA or to be inhibited by various nonselective NSAIDs or celecoxib. The cyclooxygenase activity of nanodisc-reconstituted COX-2 was reduced by aspirin acetylation and potentiated by the nonsubstrate fatty acid palmitic acid to the same extent as detergent solubilized enzyme, independent of phospholipid composition. The stabilization and maintenance of activity afforded by the incorporation of the enzyme into nanodiscs generates a native-like lipid bilayer environment to pursue studies of COX utilizing solution-based techniques that are otherwise not tractable in the presence of detergents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Orlando
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Daniel R McDougle
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA; Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA; Department of Bioengineering and Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Michael J Lucido
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Edward T Eng
- New York Structural Biology Center, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Leigh Ann Graham
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical School, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Claus Schneider
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical School, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - David L Stokes
- New York Structural Biology Center, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Aditi Das
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA; Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA; Department of Bioengineering and Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Michael G Malkowski
- Department of Structural Biology, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA; Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| |
Collapse
|