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Alexander NB, Knutson D, Morrow LK, Klimasmith I, Smith EM, Spellman M, Rivera M, Scherz M, Fountain K, Allen-Custodio LT, Lynch L, Clarkberg TE, Coon JJ. Disparities, Concerns, and Recommendations for LGBTQ+ Data Collection within the Biological Sciences. Bioscience 2023. [DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biad011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan B Alexander
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign , Urbana, Illinois , United States
| | - Douglas Knutson
- School of Community Health Sciences, Counseling, and Counseling Psychology, Oklahoma State University , Stillwater, Oklahoma , United States
| | - Leslie K Morrow
- Department of Education Policy, Organization, and Leadership, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign , Urbana, Illinois , United States
| | - Isaac Klimasmith
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign , Urbana, Illinois , United States
| | - Emmett M Smith
- Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond , Indiana , United States
| | - Madeleine Spellman
- Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond , Indiana , United States
| | - Michael Rivera
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign , Urbana, Illinois , United States
| | - Maxine Scherz
- Department of Environmental Sustainability, Earlham College , Richmond, Indiana , United States
| | - Kae Fountain
- Humboldt State University , Arcata, California , United States
| | | | - Loren Lynch
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign , Urbana, Illinois , United States
| | - Thea E Clarkberg
- Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond , Indiana , United States
| | - Jaime J Coon
- Department of Environmental Sustainability, Earlham College , Richmond, Indiana , United States
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Coon JJ, Alexander NB, Smith EM, Spellman M, Klimasmith IM, Allen‐Custodio LT, Clarkberg TE, Lynch L, Knutson D, Fountain K, Rivera M, Scherz M, Morrow LK. Best practices for
LGBTQ
+ inclusion during ecological fieldwork: Considering safety, cis/heteronormativity and structural barriers. J Appl Ecol 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.14339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaime J. Coon
- Department of Biology Earlham College Richmond Indiana USA
- Department of Environmental Sustainability Earlham College Richmond Indiana USA
| | - Nathan B. Alexander
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana Illinois USA
| | | | - Madeleine Spellman
- Department of Biology Earlham College Richmond Indiana USA
- Department of Environmental Sustainability Earlham College Richmond Indiana USA
| | - Isaac M. Klimasmith
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana Illinois USA
| | | | | | - Loren Lynch
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana Illinois USA
| | - Douglas Knutson
- School of Community Health Sciences, Counseling and Counseling Psychology Oklahoma State University Stillwater Oklahoma USA
| | | | - Michael Rivera
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana Illinois USA
| | - Maxine Scherz
- Department of Biology Earlham College Richmond Indiana USA
- Department of Environmental Sustainability Earlham College Richmond Indiana USA
| | - Leslie K. Morrow
- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Resource Center University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana Illinois USA
- Department of Education Policy, Organization and Leadership University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign Urbana Illinois USA
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Perrin‐Stowe TIN, Horner M, Coon JJ, Lynch LR, de Flamingh A, Alexander NB, Golebie E, Swartz TM, Bader AC, Halsey SJ. "Where do I even start?" Recommendations for faculty diversifying syllabi in ecology, evolution, and the life sciences. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9719. [PMID: 36620406 PMCID: PMC9810791 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Diversifying curricula is of increasing interest in higher education, including in ecology and evolution and allied fields. Yet, many educators may not know where to start. Here we provide a framework for meeting standard curriculum goals while enacting anti-racist and anti-colonial syllabi that is grounded in the development of a sustainable network of educators. In addition to highlighting this professional learning process and sharing the list of resources our group has developed, we provide suggestions to help educators highlight contributions of minoritized groups, explore multiple ways of knowing, and perform critical assessments of foundational views of life and environmental science fields. We further discuss the key classroom dynamics that affect the success of such anti-racist and anti-colonial initiatives. The retention and success of minoritized students in ecology and evolution depends on whether we address injustices in our fields. Our hope is that our fellow educators will use this paper to catalyze their own efforts to diversify their courses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melissa Horner
- Department of SociologyUniversity of MissouriColumbiaMissouriUSA
| | - Jaime J. Coon
- Department of BiologyEarlham CollegeRichmondIndianaUSA,Department of Environmental SustainabilityEarlham CollegeRichmondIndianaUSA
| | - Lauren R. Lynch
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Illinois at Urbana‐ChampaignChampaignIllinoisUSA
| | - Alida de Flamingh
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic BiologyUniversity of Illinois at Urbana‐ChampaignChampaignIllinoisUSA
| | - Nathan B. Alexander
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Illinois at Urbana‐ChampaignChampaignIllinoisUSA
| | - Elizabeth Golebie
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Illinois at Urbana‐ChampaignChampaignIllinoisUSA
| | - Timothy M. Swartz
- Department of Biology, Center for BiodiversityTemple UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Alyssa C. Bader
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderColoradoUSA
| | - Samniqueka J. Halsey
- Applied Computational Ecology LabSchool of Natural ResourcesUniversity of MissouriColumbiaMissouriUSA
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Abstract
Abstract
Movement ecology and dispersal capabilities inherently drive genetic structure across landscapes. Through understanding dispersal and gene flow of giant kangaroo rats (Dipodomys ingens), conservation efforts can be focused, and we can further understand how genetic structure persists in this highly endemic small mammal. Here, we genetically identify parent–offspring and sibship relationships among 239 giant kangaroo rats using 15 microsatellites in the northern part of the species range and describe the individual genetic-spatial variation using a Moran eigenvector map (MEM). We further employ two landscape genetic analyses (isolation by resistance [IBR] and least cost paths [LCPs]) and two individual-based genetic metrics (Dps and a codominant marker distance from GenAlEx) to determine landscape factors (precipitation, slope, vegetation community, and roads) that influence gene flow. We found 19 pairs of related individuals, of which 18 were less than 250 m apart, but one sibling pair was 5.52 km apart, suggesting greater dispersal capabilities than previously noted. We found hierarchal spatial genetic structure using a MEM, with 3–4 genetically similar regions and two genetically similar subregions. Finally, we found low correlative strength between landscape features and gene flow. IBR consistently outperformed LCPs, and there was evidence that regions with 250–350 mm of precipitation and slope ≤ 5° promoted connectivity. We recommend that managers focus on habitat protection rather than corridor maintenance, with the caveat that anthropogenic factors were minimally considered in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan B Alexander
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
| | - Mark J Statham
- Mammalian Ecology and Conservation Unit, Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin N Sacks
- Mammalian Ecology and Conservation Unit, Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - William T Bean
- Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
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Alexander NB, Alexander N. MONITORING COMMUNITY MOBILITY: FOCUS ON PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND LOSSES OF BALANCE IN COMORBID OLDER ADULTS. Innov Aging 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/geroni/igy023.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - N Alexander
- Division of Geriatric and Palliative Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
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Zilliox L, Peltier AC, Wren PA, Anderson A, Smith AG, Singleton JR, Feldman EL, Alexander NB, Russell JW. Assessing autonomic dysfunction in early diabetic neuropathy: the Survey of Autonomic Symptoms. Neurology 2011; 76:1099-105. [PMID: 21422460 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0b013e3182120147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Autonomic symptoms may occur frequently in diabetic and other neuropathies. There is a need to develop a simple instrument to measure autonomic symptoms in subjects with neuropathy and to test the validity of the instrument. METHODS The Survey of Autonomic Symptoms (SAS) consists of 11 items in women and 12 in men. Each item is rated by an impact score ranging from 1 (least severe) to 5 (most severe). The SAS was tested in observational studies and compared to a previously validated autonomic scale, the Autonomic Symptom Profile (ASP), and to a series of autonomic tests. RESULTS The SAS was tested in 30 healthy controls and 62 subjects with neuropathy and impaired glucose tolerance or newly diagnosed diabetes. An increased SAS score was associated with the previously validated ASP (rank order correlation=0.68; p<0.0001) and with quantitative measures of autonomic function: a reduced quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test sweat volume (0.31; p<0.05) and an abnormal 30:15 ratio (0.53; p<0.01). The SAS shows a high sensitivity and specificity (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve 0.828) that compares favorably with the ASP. The SAS scale domains had a good internal consistency and reliability (Cronbach α=0.76). The SAS symptom score was increased in neuropathy (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.99-4.14) compared to control (95% CI 0.58-1.69; p<0.0001) subjects. CONCLUSIONS The SAS is a new, valid, easily administered instrument to measure autonomic symptoms in early diabetic neuropathy and would be of value in assessing neuropathic autonomic symptoms in clinical trials and epidemiologic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Zilliox
- Department of Neurology, University of Maryland and Maryland VA Healthcare System, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses (1) that the maximum distance reached by young or older women when standing on a raised platform is independent of movement speed, and (2) the maximum forward momentum generated at comfortable and fast reaching speeds is independent of age. DESIGN Repeated measures case-control study in a university laboratory setting.Background. Maximum forward reach distance is often part of a geriatric mobility assessment. The effect of movement speed, and hence momentum, on forward reaching behavior is unknown in young or older subjects, despite the fact that excess momentum might increase the risk of fall-related injuries, especially from an elevated surface. METHODS Ten healthy young women (mean age 23.7 years) and 10 healthy older women (mean age 70.5 years) participated. Subjects stood on an instrumented force platform and forward reach body segment kinematics were measured optoelectronically. Whole-body center of reaction and center of mass trajectories were calculated during six maximum forward reach trials: three performed "at a comfortable speed", and three performed "as fast as possible". RESULTS Subjects reached slightly further at a comfortable speed than when reaching as fast as possible (P=0.016). Fast reaches were associated with a 25% increase in momentum (P<0.001; however, under both speed conditions, older women developed less whole-body momentum than did young controls (for example, 4.1 vs. 6.1 kgm/s at comfortable speed, P<0.05). Three young and one older women lost their balance in at least one trial. CONCLUSIONS Independent of age, these women reached further when reaching slowly than when reaching rapidly, and older women restricted peak forward momentum under both speed conditions when standing on the elevated surface. RELEVANCE Interventions designed to reduce falls from raised surfaces might utilize the insights gained from these women that (1) at any age, one cannot expect to reach as far when reaching fast as one can when reaching slowly; and (2) comfortable reaching speed is reduced in older individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kozak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, GG Brown 3208, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125, USA
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Alexander NB, Galecki AT, Grenier ML, Nyquist LV, Hofmeyer MR, Grunawalt JC, Medell JL, Fry-Welch D. Task-specific resistance training to improve the ability of activities of daily living-impaired older adults to rise from a bed and from a chair. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001; 49:1418-27. [PMID: 11890578 DOI: 10.1046/j.1532-5415.2001.4911232.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the effect of a 12-week intervention to improve the ability of disabled older adults to rise from a bed and from a chair. DESIGN Subjects were randomly allocated to either a 12-week task-specific resistance-training intervention (training in bed- and chair-rise subtasks, such as sliding forward to the edge of a chair with the addition of weights) or a control flexibility intervention. SETTING Seven congregate housing facilities. PARTICIPANTS Congregate housing residents age 65 and older (n = 161, mean age 82) who reported requiring assistance (such as from a person, equipment, or device) in performing at least one of the following mobility-related activities of daily living: transferring, walking, bathing, and toileting. MEASUREMENTS At baseline, 6 weeks, and 12 weeks, subjects performed a series of bed- and chair-rise tasks where the rise task demand varied according to height of the head of the bed, chair seat height, and use of hands. Outcomes were able or unable to rise and, if able, the time taken to rise. Logistic regression for repeated measures was used to test for differences between tasks in the ability to rise. Following log transformation of rise time, a linear effects model was used to compare rise time between tasks. RESULTS Regarding the maximum total number of bed- and chair-rise tasks that could be successfully completed, a significant training effect was seen at 12 weeks (P = .03); the training effect decreased as the total number of tasks increased. No statistically significant training effects were noted for rise ability according to individual tasks. Bed- and chair-rise time showed a significant training effect for each rise task, with analytic models suggesting a range of approximately 11% to 20% rise-time (up to 1.5 seconds) improvement in the training group over controls. Training effects were also noted in musculoskeletal capacities, particularly in trunk range of motion, strength, and balance. CONCLUSIONS Task-specific resistance training increased the overall ability and decreased the rise time required to perform a series of bed- and chair-rise tasks. The actual rise-time improvement was clinically small but may be useful over the long term. Future studies might consider adapting this exercise program and the focus on trunk function to a frailer cohort, such as in rehabilitation settings. In these settings, the less challenging rise tasks (such as rising from an elevated chair) and the ability to perform intermediate tasks (such as hip bridging) may become important intermediate rehabilitation goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Alexander NB, Gross MM, Medell JL, Hofmeyer MR. Effects of functional ability and training on chair-rise biomechanics in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2001; 56:M538-47. [PMID: 11524445 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/56.9.m538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Difficulty in rising from a chair is common in older adults and may be assessed by examining the biomechanics of the rise. The purposes of this study were (i) to analyze the biomechanics of rise performance during chair-rise tasks with varying task demand in older adults with varying rise ability and (ii) to determine whether a strength-training program might improve chair-rise success and alter chair-rise biomechanics, particularly under situations of increased task demand. METHODS A training group (n = 16; mean age, 82 years) completed a 12-week strength-training regimen while a control group (n = 14; mean age, 84 years) participated in a seated flexibility program. Outcomes included the ability to complete seven chair-rise tasks, and, if the chair-rise tasks were successful, the biomechanics of these rises. Chair-rise task demand was increased by lowering the seat height, restricting the use of hands, increasing rise speed, and limiting foot support. RESULTS At baseline, increased chair-rise task demand generally required increased task completion time, increased anterior center of pressure (COP) placement, increased momentum, increased hip flexion, and increased hip and knee torque output. Those unable to rise at 100% knee height without the use of their hands (task NH-100), compared with those able to rise during task NH-100, followed this pattern in requiring increased time, more anterior placement of the COP, and increased hip flexion to rise in the least demanding tasks allowing the use of hands. However, the unable subjects generated less momentum and knee torque in these tasks. At 12 weeks, and compared with baseline and controls, the training group demonstrated changes in chair-rise biomechanics but no significant changes in rise success. The training subjects, as compared with the controls, maintained a more posterior COP, increased their vertical and horizontal momentum, maintained their knees in greater extension, and maintained their knee-torque output. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that subtle yet significant changes can be demonstrated in chair-rise performance as a result of a controlled resistance-training program. These biomechanical changes may represent a shift away from impairment in chair-rise ability, and, although the changes are small, they represent how training may reduce rise difficulty.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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DeGoede KM, Ashton-Miller JA, Liao JM, Alexander NB. How quickly can healthy adults move their hands to intercept an approaching object? Age and gender effects. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2001; 56:M584-8. [PMID: 11524453 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/56.9.m584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The upper extremities are often used to protect the head and torso from impact with an object or with the ground. We tested the null hypotheses that neither age nor gender would affect the time required for healthy adults to move their upper extremities into a protective posture. METHODS Twenty young (mean age 25 years) and twenty older (mean age 70 years) volunteers, with equal gender representation, performed a seated arm-movement task under three conditions: Condition 1, in which subjects were instructed to raise the hands upon cue as quickly as possible from thigh level to a shoulder height target; Condition 2, in which subjects were instructed as in Condition 1 with the addition of intercepting a swinging pendulum at the prescribed hand target; and Condition 3, in which subjects were instructed as in Condition 2 but were asked to wait as long as possible before initiating hand movement to intercept the pendulum. Arm movements were quantified using standard kinematic techniques. RESULTS Age (p <.01) and gender (p <.05) affected hand movement times. In Conditions 1 and 2, the older women required 20% longer movement times than the other subject groups (335 vs 279 milliseconds; p <.01). In Condition 3, shorter movement times were achieved by young men (20%; p =.002) and older women (10%; p =.056) as compared with their respective performance in Conditions 1 and 2 because they did not fully decelerate their hands. The other groups slowed their movements in Condition 3. CONCLUSIONS Age, gender, and perceived threat significantly affected movement times. However, even the slowest movement times were well within the time available to deploy the hands in a forward fall to the ground.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M DeGoede
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, GGB 3208, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125, USA
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Wojcik LA, Thelen DG, Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB. Age and gender differences in peak lower extremity joint torques and ranges of motion used during single-step balance recovery from a forward fall. J Biomech 2001; 34:67-73. [PMID: 11425082 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9290(00)00152-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have found substantial age and gender group differences in the ability of healthy adults to regain balance with a single step after a forward fall. It was hypothesized that differences in lower extremity joint strengths and ranges of motion (ROM) may have contributed to these observed differences. Kinematic and forceplate data were therefore used with a rigid-link biomechanical model simulating stepped leg dynamics to examine the joint torques and ROM used by subjects during successful single-step balance recoveries after release from a forward lean. The peak ROM and torques used by subjects in the study were compared to published estimates or measured values of the available maxima. No significant age or gender group differences were found in the mean ROM used by the subjects for any given initial lean angle. As initial lean angle increased, larger knee ROM and significantly larger hip ROM were used in the successful recoveries. There were substantial gender differences and some age group differences in peak lower extremity joint torques used in successful recoveries. Both young and older females often used nearly maximal joint torques to recover balance. Subjects' maximum joint strengths in plantarflexion and hip flexion were not good predictors of single-step balance recovery ability, particularly among the female subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Wojcik
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2125, USA.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to describe how older adults, particularly more physically impaired older adults, might differ from healthy controls in the body positions used to rise from the floor. DESIGN Cross-sectional analysis of young, healthy older, and congregate housing older women. SETTING University-based laboratory and congregate housing facility. PARTICIPANTS Healthy young university student controls (n = 22, mean age 23 years); healthy old adults living independently in the community (n = 24, mean age 73 years); and congregate housing older adults (n = 29, mean age 81 years). INTERVENTION Videotaping and timing of rising from a supine position on the floor to standing. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES In addition to the time taken to rise from the floor, 10 specific trunk and extremity positions used during the rise, termed Intermediate Positions (IP), were identified. RESULTS The Young controls had the fastest rise time and used the fewest number of IP, whereas the Congregate residents had the slowest rise time and used the most IP, with the Healthy old adults intermediate in both time and IP use. Prevalence of certain IP, together with correlational and factor analyses, suggest that use of Sit and Crouch was the most preferred rise strategy for the Young controls, whereas use of Tuck, Crouch-Kneel, All Fours, and Bearwalk was the most preferred rise strategy among the Congregate residents. The Healthy old used IP common to both Young and Congregate residents, reflecting a rise strategy intermediate to the latter groups. A substantial subset of the Congregate residents (38%) were unable to rise without assistance and appeared to use certain preparatory positions (Sit, Kneel, Tuck) but were unable to get into presumably more challenging positions (Crouch-Kneel, All Fours, Bearwalk). CONCLUSIONS With increasing age and physical impairment, body positions used during rising from the floor suggest a preference for maintaining upper and lower extremity contact with the floor, presumably minimizing the lower extremity strength requirements to rise and maximizing stability and postural control. These intermediate body positions may be useful as the basis for training older adults to rise from the floor.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ulbrich
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Alexander NB, Guire KE, Thelen DG, Ashton-Miller JA, Schultz AB, Grunawalt JC, Giordani B. Self-reported walking ability predicts functional mobility performance in frail older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48:1408-13. [PMID: 11083316 DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2000.tb02630.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine how self-reported physical function relates to performance in each of three mobility domains: walking, stance maintenance, and rising from chairs. DESIGN Cross-sectional analysis of older adults. SETTING University-based laboratory and community-based congregate housing facilities. PARTICIPANTS Two hundred twenty-one older adults (mean age, 79.9 years; range, 60-102 years) without clinical evidence of dementia (mean Folstein Mini-Mental State score, 28; range, 24-30). INTERVENTION AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES We compared the responses of these older adults on a questionnaire battery used by the Established Populations for the Epidemiologic Study of the Elderly (EPESE) project, to performance on mobility tasks of graded difficulty. Responses to the EPESE battery included: (1) whether assistance was required to perform seven Katz activities of daily living (ADL) items, specifically with walking and transferring; (2) three Rosow-Breslau items, including the ability to walk up stairs and walk a half mile; and (3) five Nagi items, including difficulty stooping, reaching, and lifting objects. The performance measures included the ability to perform, and time taken to perform, tasks in three summary score domains: (1) walking ("Walking," seven tasks, including walking with an assistive device, turning, stair climbing, tandem walking); (2) stance maintenance ("Stance," six tasks, including unipedal, bipedal, tandem, and maximum lean); and (3) chair rise ("Chair Rise," six tasks, including rising from a variety of seat heights with and without the use of hands for assistance). A total score combines scores in each Walking, Stance, and Chair Rise domain. We also analyzed how cognitive/ behavioral factors such as depression and self-efficacy related to the residuals from the self-report and performance-based ANOVA models. RESULTS Rosow-Breslau items have the strongest relationship with the three performance domains, Walking, Stance, and Chair Rise (eta-squared ranging from 0.21 to 0.44). These three performance domains are as strongly related to one Katz ADL item, walking (eta-squared ranging from 0.15 to 0.33) as all of the Katz ADL items combined (eta-squared ranging from 0.21 to 0.35). Tests of problem solving and psychomotor speed, the Trails A and Trails B tests, are significantly correlated with the residuals from the self-report and performance-based ANOVA models. CONCLUSIONS Compared with the rest of the EPESE self-report items, self-report items related to walking (such as Katz walking and Rosow-Breslau items) are better predictors of functional mobility performance on tasks involving walking, stance maintenance, and rising from chairs. Compared with other self-report items, self-reported walking ability may be the best predictor of overall functional mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Alexander NB, Grunawalt JC, Carlos S, Augustine J. Bed mobility task performance in older adults. J Rehabil Res Dev 2000; 37:633-8. [PMID: 11322161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
Difficulty in transferring, the ability to rise in and out of a bed and chair, is a common problem in older adults, particularly those residing in skilled nursing facilities. Focusing on one aspect of transferring, rising from supine to sitting position, we devised a set of bed mobility tasks to test key arm, leg, and trunk movements that likely contribute to successful rising from bed. Healthy young controls (YC, n=22, mean age 23), and older adults (aged 60 and over) either residing independently in congregate housing (CH, n=29, mean age 84) or undergoing rehabilitation in a skilled nursing facility (SNF, mean age 77) were assessed in the time to rise from supine to sitting and in the ability or inability to perform 16 other bed mobility tasks. Trunk function-related tasks, specifically those requiring trunk elevation and trunk balance, were most difficult for the SNF, followed by CH, and then YC. Tasks focusing on trunk flexion strength (sit up arms crossed, bilateral heel raise) and lateral trunk strength/balance were the most difficult for both SNF and CH, although there was minimal difference in the percent unable to complete each task. The major CH-SNF differences occurred in trunk elevation tasks where the upper limb was important in facilitating trunk elevation (sit up with head of bed elevation with use of arms, sit up with the use of a trapeze, or sit up with use of arms from a flat bed position). These findings suggest that to improve frail older adult performance on bed mobility tasks, and specifically in rising from supine to sitting, training should move beyond improving trunk function (i.e., trunk strength). There should be an additional focus, either through therapy or bed design modifications, on how upper limb movements and positioning can be used to assist in trunk elevation.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, USA.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND In older adults, clinical measures have been used to assess fall risk based on the ability to maintain stance or to complete a functional task. However, in an impending fall situation, a stepping response is often used when strategies to maintain stance are inadequate. We examined how maximal and rapid stepping performance might differ among healthy young, healthy older, and balance-impaired older adults, and how this stepping performance related to other measures of balance and fall risk. METHODS Young (Y; n = 12; mean age, 21 years), unimpaired older (UO; n = 12; mean age, 69 years), and balance-impaired older women IO; n = 10; mean age, 77 years) were tested in their ability to take a maximal step (Maximum Step Length or MSL) and in their ability to take rapid steps in three directions (front, side, and back), termed the Rapid Step Test (RST). Time to complete the RST and stepping errors occurring during the RST were noted. RESULTS The IO group, compared with the Y and UO groups, demonstrated significantly poorer balance and higher fall risk, based on performance on tasks such as unipedal stance. Mean MSL was significantly higher (by 16%) in the Y than in the UO group and in the UO (by 30%) than in the IO group. Mean RST time was significantly faster in the Y group versus the UO group (by 24%) and in the UO group versus the IO group (by 15%). Mean RST errors tended to be higher in the UO than in the Y group, but were significantly higher only in the UO versus the IO group. Both MSL and RST time correlated strongly (0.5 to 0.8) with other measures of balance and fall risk including unipedal stance, tandem walk, leg strength, and the Activities-Specific Balance Confidence (ABC) scale. CONCLUSION We found substantial declines in the ability of both unimpaired and balance-impaired older adults to step maximally and to step rapidly. Stepping performance is closely related to other measures of balance and fall risk and might be considered in future studies as a predictor of falls and fall-related injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Medell
- Mobility Research Center, Division of Geriatric Medicine, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Alexander NB, Galecki AT, Nyquist LV, Hofmeyer MR, Grunawalt JC, Grenier ML, Medell JL. Chair and bed rise performance in ADL-impaired congregate housing residents. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48:526-33. [PMID: 10811546 DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2000.tb04999.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To examine the ability of activity of daily living (ADL)-impaired older adults to successfully rise, and, when successful, the time taken to rise, from a bed and chair under varying rise task demands. SETTING Seven congregate housing facilities SUBJECTS Congregate housing residents (n = 116, mean age 82) who admitted to requiring assistance (such as from a person, equipment, or device) in performing at least one of the following mobility-related ADLs: transferring, walking, bathing, and toileting. METHODS Subjects performed a series of bed and chair rise tasks where the rise task demand varied according to the head of bed (HOB) height, chair seat height, and use of hands. Bed rise tasks included supine to sit-to-edge, sit up in bed with hand use, and sit up in bed without hands, all performed from a bed where the HOB was adjusted to 0, 30, and 45 degrees elevations; roll to side-lying then rise (HOB 0 degrees); and supine to stand (HOB 0 degrees). Chair seat heights were adjusted according to the percent of the distance between the floor and the knee (% FK), and included rises (1) with hands and then without hands at 140, 120, 100, and 80% FK; (2) from a reclining (105 degrees at chair back) and tilting (seat tilted 10 degrees posteriorly) chair (100% FK); and (3) from a 80% FK seat height with a 4-inch cushion added, with and then without hands. Logistic regression for repeated measures was used to test for differences between tasks in the ability to rise. After log transformation of rise time, a linear effects model was used to compare rise time between tasks. RESULTS The median total number of tasks successfully completed was 18 (range, 3-21). Nearly all subjects were able to rise from positions where the starting surface was elevated as long as hand use was unlimited. With the HOB at 30 or 45 degrees essentially all subjects could complete supine to sit-to-edge and sit up with hands. Essentially all subjects could rise from a seat height at 140, 120, and 100% FK as long as hand use was allowed. A small group (8-10%) of subjects was dependent upon hand use to perform the least challenging tasks, such as 140% FK without hands chair rise and 45 degrees sit up without hands. This dependency upon hand use increased significantly as the demand of the task increased, that is, as the HOB or seat height was lowered. Approximately three-quarters of the sample could not rise from a flat (0 degrees HOB elevation) bed or low (80% FK) chair when hand use was not allowed. Similar trends were seen in rise performance time, that is, performance times tended to increase as the HOB or chair seat elevation declined and as hand use was limited. Total self-reported ADL disability, compared to the single ADL transferring item, was a stronger predictor of rise ability and timed rise performance, particularly for chair rise tasks. CONCLUSIONS Lowering HOB height and seat height increased bed and chair rise task difficulty, particularly when hand use was restricted. Restricting hand use in low HOB height or lowered seat height conditions may help to identify older adults with declining rise ability. Yet, many of those who could not rise under "without hands" conditions could rise under "with hands" conditions, suggesting that dependency on hand use may be a marker of progressive rise impairment but may not predict day-to-day natural milieu rise performance. Intertask differences in performance time may be statistically significant but are clinically small. Given the relationship between self-reported ADL disability and rise performance, impaired rise performance may be considered a marker for ADL disability. These bed and chair rise tasks can serve as outcomes for an intervention to improve bed and chair rise ability and might also be used in future studies to quantify improvements or declines in function over time, to refine physical therapy protocols, and to examine the effect of bed and chair design modifications on bed and chai
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0926, USA
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Thelen DG, Muriuki M, James J, Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB. Muscle activities used by young and old adults when stepping to regain balance during a forward fall. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2000; 10:93-101. [PMID: 10699557 DOI: 10.1016/s1050-6411(99)00028-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study was undertaken to determine if age-related differences in muscle activities might relate to older adults being significantly less able than young adults to recover balance during a forward fall. Fourteen young and twelve older healthy males were released from forward leans of various magnitudes and asked to regain standing balance by taking a single forward step. Myoelectric signals were recorded from 12 lower extremity muscles and processed to compare the muscle activation patterns of young and older adults. Young adults successfully recovered from significantly larger leans than older adults using a single step (32.2 degrees vs. 23.5 degrees ). Muscular latency times, the time between release and activity onset, ranged from 73 to 114 ms with no significant age-related differences in the shortest muscular latency times. The overall response muscular activation patterns were similar for young and older adults. However older adults were slower to deactivate three stance leg muscles and also demonstrated delays in activating the step leg hip flexors and knee extensors prior to and during the swing phase. In the forward fall paradigm studied, age-differences in balance recovery performance do not seem due to slowness in response onset but may relate to differences in muscle activation timing during the stepping movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Thelen
- Hope College, Department of Physics and Engineering, Holland, MI 49423, USA.
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Wojcik LA, Thelen DG, Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB. Age and gender differences in single-step recovery from a forward fall. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1999; 54:M44-50. [PMID: 10026662 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/54.1.m44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous work has found that healthy older men were significantly less able than young male adults to recover balance by taking a single rapid step upon sudden release from forward leans. In light of the higher rates of falls and fall-related injuries among older women compared to older men, we hypothesized that healthy older women would perform more poorly than either female young adults or older men in this test of abilities to recover balance rapidly. METHODS Ten young (mean age 25.0 years) and 10 older (73.7 years) healthy women were released from forward leans and instructed to regain standing balance by taking a single step forward. The lean angle was incrementally increased from its smallest value, approximately 14 degrees, until the subject failed to regain balance as instructed. Lower extremity kinematics were measured, and findings were compared with those of the earlier study of healthy young and old men. RESULTS Five of the 10 older women could not recover balance with a single step after release from the smallest of the imposed forward leans. For the 5 older women who succeeded in recovering as instructed from at least one lean, the mean maximum lean angle was significantly smaller than that for young women (16.2 degrees vs 30.7 degrees, p < .001) or older men (16.2 degrees vs 23.9 degrees, p = .014). In contrast, there was no significant difference in mean maximum lean angle between female and male young adults. CONCLUSIONS Healthy older women, compared to either young women or older men, were significantly less able to recover balance by taking a single rapid step during a forward fall. The decreased abilities of older women appeared to result from limitations in the maximum speeds at which they moved their swing foot during recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Wojcik
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Thelen DG, Brockmiller C, Ashton-Miller JA, Schultz AB, Alexander NB. Thresholds for sensing foot dorsi- and plantarflexion during upright stance: effects of age and velocity. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998; 53:M33-8. [PMID: 9467431 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/53a.1.m33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The objective of this study was to determine in healthy young and old adult females the influence of age, rotation direction, angle, and speed on the threshold for sensing foot dorsi- and plantarflexion when standing and bearing weight on the limb. METHODS Twelve young (YF, mean age 22 years) and 12 old (OF, 70 years) healthy adult females stood with their dominant foot on a servo-controlled platform and the other foot on a fixed platform. The platform induced either dorsi- or plantarflexion rotations at angular velocities of 0.1, 0.5, or 2.5 degrees/s to angles of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 or 0.8 degree. Subjects performed five trials at each velocity-angle combination and 30 dummy trials in which no platform rotation occurred, for a total of 180 trials. Success rates were determined for detecting both rotation (SRR) and rotation direction (SRD) for each test condition. The angular thresholds required to achieve an SRD of 75% were estimated using logistic regression. RESULTS Age, rotation angle, and rotation speed significantly affected SRD (repeated measures ANOVA: p < .001). For the YF, DF thresholds were 0.04, 0.09, and 0.41 degree at the fast, moderate, and slow velocities, respectively. Threshold angles were three to four times larger in the OF than in the YF. A 10-fold reduction in the angular threshold was observed upon increasing the speed of rotation from 0.1 to 2.5 degrees/s. CONCLUSIONS Both age and speed significantly affected the thresholds for sensing foot dorsiflexion and plantarflexion in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Thelen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Abstract
Background: Significant age and gender differences were found among healthy young and older adult subjects in their abilities to quickly turn or stop in order to avoid obstacles that suddenly appear in the gait path (Cao C, Ashton-Miller JA, Schultz AB, Alexander NB. Abilities to turn suddenly: effects of age, gender and available response time. J Gerontol Med Sci 1997;52A:M88-M93; Cao C, Ashton-Miller JA, Schultz AB, Alexander NB. Abilities to stop suddenly: effects of age, gender, gait phase, and available response time. Submitted for publication, 1997 (also available as a chapter in Cao C. Biomechanics of forward momentum arrest when walking: age and gender differences. PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1996). The present study quantified the extent to which age and gender differences in those subjects' response kinematics affected the total time they needed to suddenly arrest their forward momentum. Methods: Age- and gender-group means of four measures of forward movement of the anterior surface of the abdomen were obtained: the duration of the first post-cue response phase, from the visual cue that initiated the arrest response to reaching peak velocity (T1); acceleration (A1) during this phase; and decelerations (D2 and D3) during two subsequent post-cue response phases. A three-line-segment representation of this forward velocity history was constructed. This representation was used to predict the differences in response time needed (NRT) to suddenly arrest momentum that resulted from measured age and gender differences in each of the four response kinematics measures. Results: The largest contributor to the age group difference found in NRT was the increase in T1 among the older adults. Among the older males, the next largest contributor was their larger value of A1, and among the older females, their substantially smaller value of D2. Among the young adults in sudden turns, no single kinematic parameter seemed primarily responsible for the gender difference found in the NRT. Among the older adults, the gender difference in D2 was almost fully responsible for the gender difference in NRT, in both sudden stops and turns. Conclusions: Much of the older adults' need for longer response times than those of the young was attributable to the lengthened first phase of their responses. Older females, in addition, needed longer response times than young adults or older males because, during the second phase of their responses, their decelerations were substantially smaller. These age and gender differences may have arisen in part from known age and gender differences in abilities to develop lower extremity joint torque strengths rapidly. Copyright 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125, USA
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Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB. What leads to age and gender differences in balance maintenance and recovery? Muscle Nerve Suppl 1997; 5:S60-4. [PMID: 9331387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OA compared to YA have high rates of falls and fall-related injuries. OF have notably higher rates of falls and fall-related injuries than OM. Healthy OA compared to YA, and females compared to males of any adult age, have lower strengths and have development rates for at least some strengths that are lower. The results of the obstacle avoidance and balance recovery studies described suggest that OA are not notably more at risk than YA, nor are females notably more at risk than males, in avoidance and recovery tasks that are time-critical (TC), but do not have high strength (HS) requirements. The results suggest that for TC/HS avoidance and recovery tasks, OA compared to YA and females compared to males are substantially more at risk for injury. The source of these age and gender differences seems to lie primarily in differences in muscle strengths and speeds of muscle contraction once contraction is initiated, rather than in neural factors underlying the sensory processing or motor planning that leads to the initiation of muscle contraction. Perhaps these findings help to explain the high rates of falls and fall injuries among OA compared to YA, and among OF compared to OM.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Schultz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2125, USA
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Alexander NB, Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Gross MM, Giordani B. Muscle strength and rising from a chair in older adults. Muscle Nerve Suppl 1997; 5:S56-9. [PMID: 9331386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Dutta C, Alexander NB. Summary of work group II: small-scale clinical studies. Muscle Nerve 1997; 5:S117-20. [PMID: 9331400 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4598(1997)5+<117::aid-mus28>3.0.co;2-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- C Dutta
- Geriatrics Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE The primary goal was to determine the ability of older adults to rise from the floor. A secondary goal was to explore how rise ability might differ based on initial body positions and with or without the use of an assistive device. DESIGN Cross-sectional analysis of young, healthy older, and congregate housing older adults. SETTING University-based laboratory and congregate housing facility. PARTICIPANTS Young adult controls (12 men and 12 women, mean age 23 years), healthy older adults (12 men and 12 women, mean age 73 years), and congregate housing older adults (32 women and 6 men, mean age 80 years). The healthy older adult women (n = 12, mean age 75 years) and a subset of the congregate housing women (n = 27, mean age 81 years) were identified for further analyses. INTERVENTION Videotaping and timing of rising from the floor from controlled initial body positions (supine, on side, prone, all fours, and sitting) and with or without the use of a furniture support. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Whether subjects were successful in rising, and if they were, the time taken to rise. Subjects also rated their perceived difficulty of the task as compared to the reference task, rising from a supine position. RESULTS Older adults have more difficulty rising from the floor than younger adults. The healthy old took twice as long as the young to rise, whereas the congregate old took two to three times as long as the healthy old to rise. Although all young and healthy old rose from every position, a subset of the congregate housing residents was unable to rise from any position, 24% when attempting to rise without a support and 13% when attempting to rise with a support. Congregate old were most likely to be successful when rising from a side-lying position while using the furniture for support. The more able congregate old, as well as the young and healthy old, rose more quickly and admitted to the least difficulty when rising from the all fours position. CONCLUSIONS The inability to rise from the floor is relatively common in congregate housing older adults. Based on the differences between groups in time to complete the rise, determining the differences in rise strategies, and the underlying biomechanical requirements of rising from different positions with or without a support would appear to be useful. These data may serve as the foundation for future interventions to improve the ability to rise from the floor.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Cao C, Ashton-Miller JA, Schultz AB, Alexander NB. Abilities to turn suddenly while walking: effects of age, gender, and available response time. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1997; 52:M88-93. [PMID: 9060975 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/52a.2.m88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Falls may occur when an unexpected turn must be made quickly, in order to avoid colliding with an object in the gait path. Little is known about abilities, particularly about abilities of old adults, to turn suddenly. METHODS Twenty young and 20 old (mean age 73.8) healthy and physically active adults, while walking straight ahead, were cued to make approximately a 90 degrees turn without advance knowledge of where the turn was to be made or whether it would be to the right or left. Subjects were given available response times (ART), the times between the cue to turn, and potential crossing of a specified forward limit line, of 375, 450, 600, and 750 ms. The rate of success (RS) in completing the turns as prescribed was determined. Regression analyses were used to estimate the additional ART that would be needed for other groups to achieve the same RS as did the young male subject group. RESULTS For all ART, old subjects had a lower rate of success in completing the turns as prescribed than the young. At an ART of 375 ms, mean RS was 36% for the young and 6% for the old. The regression analyses suggested that, for RS from 30 to 95%, old adults needed 112 ms longer than young of corresponding gender to succeed as well. Females needed on the order of 50 ms longer ART than males of corresponding age. CONCLUSIONS There are significant age and gender differences among healthy and physically active adults in the available response times they need when walking for successfully making sudden turns.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, USA
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Thelen DG, Wojcik LA, Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB. Age differences in using a rapid step to regain balance during a forward fall. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1997; 52:M8-13. [PMID: 9008663 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/52a.1.m8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Earlier studies showed that healthy old adults have substantially reduced abilities to develop joint torques rapidly. We hypothesized that this age decline would reduce abilities to regain balance once a forward fall is underway. The present study examined whether aging in fact reduces ability to regain balance by taking a single, rapid step upon release from a forward lean. METHODS Ten young (mean age 24.3 yr) and ten old (72.8 yr) healthy males were released from a forward-leaning position and instructed to regain standing balance by taking a single step forward. Lean angle was successively increased until a subject failed to regain balance as instructed. Lower extremity motions and foot-floor reactions were measured during the responses. Total response time was divided into reaction, weight transfer, and step times. RESULTS At small lean angles, responses of old subjects were similar to those of the young. However, the mean maximum lean angle from which old could regain balance as instructed was significantly smaller than that for young (23.9 vs 32.5 deg, p < .0005). Within each age group, maximum lean angle correlated strongly with weight transfer time and step velocity. CONCLUSIONS Substantial age-related declines in the ability to regain balance by taking a rapid step exist among healthy adults when the time available for recovery is short. The source of the decline seems largely to lie in the decrease with age of maximum response execution speed rather than in the sensory or motor programming processes involved in response initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Thelen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Alexander NB. Using technology-based techniques to assess postural control and gait in older adults. Clin Geriatr Med 1996; 12:725-44. [PMID: 8890113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Increasingly sophisticated instrumentation and techniques to assess gait and postural control in older adults are now available. These technology-based methods may be most useful in understanding the mechanisms underlying age-related and disease-related changes in gait and postural control. Further work is needed to ensure that these methods: (1) are used in a hypothesis-driven manner; (2) are made more simple, portable, and user friendly; and (3) are used in an appropriate and cost-effective manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0405, USA
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Alexander NB. Differential diagnosis of gait disorders in older adults. Clin Geriatr Med 1996; 12:689-703. [PMID: 8890111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to examine the causes of gait disorders in older adults, focusing specifically on the underlying diseases that are the primary causes of the disorder. A classification system for these diseases is proposed. Thus far, interventions used to reduce gait disorders yield only modest results and residual disability is common.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0405, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND When balance is disturbed, often only fractions of a second are available in which to make the initial responses needed for its restoration. Abilities to develop joint torques rapidly may be critical to such responses. We undertook this study to quantify age effects among healthy adults in abilities to develop ankle joint torques rapidly. METHODS Ankle dorsiflexion (DF) and plantarflexion (PF) torque development during rapid isometric and during isokinetic (30, 60, 120, 180, and 240 deg/sec) exertions was assessed in 24 healthy young (mean age 23 years) and 24 healthy old adults (mean age 72 years). The effects of age, gender, and torque direction on the times needed to reach given torque magnitudes, maximum rates of isometric torque development (MRTD), and maximum isokinetic torques were examined. RESULTS The old adults required substantially more time to reach given torque magnitudes than the young adults. For example, the young and old females needed approximately 236 and 337 msec to develop 15 Nm of DF torque, of which 141 and 164 msec were reaction times. Isometric MRTD were 25 to 36% lower in the old than in the young adults. The age declines in isometric torque development time were associated with losses in maximum isometric strength. Maximum isokinetic torques developed by the old were 20 to 40% lower than those of young adults. The percent losses in isokinetic torques with age were independent of joint angular velocity for PF, but increased with velocity for DF. CONCLUSIONS We found substantial age declines in abilities of healthy old adults to rapidly develop ankle joint torques. The capacities of even healthy old adults to recover balance or to carry out other time-critical actions that require moderate-to-substantial strengths may be considerably degraded by these declines.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Thelen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Rapid torque development is substantially slower in healthy old adults compared with young adults, but the underlying cause of this age-related loss remains unclear. Measurements of myoelectric signals in ankle dorsi- and plantarflexor muscles during rapid exertions were used to explore the extent to which the loss might be attributed to neural factors. METHODS Myoelectric signals were measured in a laboratory setting in 24 healthy young and 24 healthy old adult volunteers during rapid isometric and isokinetic torque development. Premotor times, muscle activation rates, and myoelectric activity levels of agonistic and antagonistic muscles were quantified. RESULTS There were few marked age differences in the premotor times or in the onset rates or magnitudes of agonistic muscles activities during maximum isometric and during isokinetic exertions. Premotor times were statistically associated with age but, in the mean, were only approximately 10 to 25 ms longer in the old. Age effects on agonist muscle activity magnitudes were significant only in the lateral gastrocnemius. Small decreases in antagonistic muscle activity levels with age were found. CONCLUSIONS Given the outcomes of this study, the differences observed previously in rapid torque development abilities in healthy older adults, compared with healthy younger adults, seem attributable largely to differences in muscle contraction mechanisms rather than to differences in speeds of stimulus sensing or central processing of motor commands, or to differences in muscle recruitment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Thelen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2125, USA
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Chen HC, Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Giordani B, Alexander NB, Guire KE. Stepping over obstacles: dividing attention impairs performance of old more than young adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1996; 51:M116-22. [PMID: 8630704 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/51a.3.m116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tripping over an obstacle is a common cause of falls in the elderly. An earlier study of abilities to avoid stepping on suddenly appearing obstacles found that, although healthy old adults had a lower rate-of-success than young adults, the magnitude of that difference was not large. The present study inquired whether dividing attention during such a task would differentially affect young and old healthy adults. METHODS Rates-of-success were observed in 16 young and 16 old healthy adults (mean ages 24 and 72 years) in avoiding stepping on a band of light that was suddenly projected across their gait path while they walked at their comfortable gait speed. This virtual obstacle was placed at predicted next-footfall locations to give 350 or 450 msec available response times before footfall. During most of the trials the subjects were asked, in addition to trying not to step on the obstacle, simultaneously to respond vocally as quickly as possible when red lights near the end of the walkway turned on. These attention-dividing reaction time tests were of two types: synchronized, when only red lights lit at intervals synchronized with the appearance of the obstacle, and unsynchronized, when green or yellow lights lit in addition to the red lights, with lighting intervals not synchronized with the appearance of the obstacle. RESULTS When synchronized and unsynchronized reaction time tests were conducted concurrently with the obstacle avoidance tasks, mean rates-of-success in avoidance decreased significantly in both young and old adults. With available response times of 350 msec, mean success rates decreased from their no-division values in the young adults by 14.7% for synchronized reaction and by 19.9% for unsynchronized reaction, attention-dividing tests. Corresponding mean decreases for the old adults were 32.0 and 35.7%. This age difference in the effects of dividing attention was significant. CONCLUSION Both young and old adults had a significantly increased risk of obstacle contact while negotiating obstacles when their attention was divided, but dividing attention degraded obstacle avoidance abilities of the old significantly more than it did in the young. Diminished abilities to respond to physical hazards present in the environment when attention is directed elsewhere may partially account for high rates of falls among the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, Ann Arbor Veterans Administration Medical Center, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine how modifications of key chair design aspects, such as seat height, posterior seat tilt, backrest recline, seat compressibility, and armrest placement, affect how older adults rise from a chair and the seating comfort they experience. DESIGN Cross-sectional comparison. SETTING Congregate housing facility and university laboratory. SUBJECTS Two groups of volunteers, Old (n = 29, mean age 84) and Young (n = 21, mean age 23). MEASUREMENTS Analysis of time to rise, body motion (determined by use of digitized videotaping), and self-reported difficulty when subjects rose from a variety of controlled chair settings thought to represent important chair design specifications encountered by older adults. Subjects also reported their comfort while being seated in these settings. RESULTS Lowered seat height, increased posterior seat tilt and backrest recline, and perhaps increased seat compressiblity cause increased time to rise, increased body motion, and increased self-reported ratings of rise difficulty in both Young and Old groups. Under the most challenging conditions, the effect appears to be stronger in the Old than in the Young: a few Old were unable to rise, and the Old took disproportionately longer to rise and used disproportionately greater neck motion (P generally < 0.001) compared with the Young. Arm rest placement did not alter rise performance or ratings significantly. The conditions in which rise difficulty increases or decreases do not correspond exactly to conditions in which comfort increases or decreases. Some aspects that increase rise difficulty, such as tilt/recline and seat compressiblity, may also increase comfort. CONCLUSIONS Aspects of chair design such as lowered seat height, increased posterior seat tilt, increased back recline, and increased compressibility interfere with chair egress in older adults. While decreasing ease of egress, however, these same factors may increase seating comfort. Furniture designers and manufacturers must find a balance between degree of sitting comfort, ease of egress and the degree to which the seating device facilitates functional independence, particularly to meet the needs of disable older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-0405, USA
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Abstract
Responses in maintaining or restoring standing balance were measured in 24 healthy young and 15 healthy elderly adults (mean ages 26 and 72) under four task conditions: two involving self-generated motions and two involving imposed disturbances. The two primary objectives of the study were to quantify the whole-body dynamics of these responses and to identify any age related differences in those dynamics. Response dynamics were analyzed using a seven-link biomechanical model. In terms of approximate population-mean values, maximum whole-body center of mass (CM) excursions ranged to 3 cm, maximum center of support-surface reaction (CR) excursions ranged to 8 cm, vertical reaction force changes ranged to 50 N, anteroposterior support surface reactions ranged to 30 N, maximum joint torques used per side ranged to 20 Nm and peak angular momenta about a transverse axis through the ankles ranged to 6 kg m2 s-1. The elderly adults, compared to the young tended to exhibit higher-frequency oscillations in excursions and larger horizontal excursions of their CM and CR, tended to develop larger support surface reactions and use larger response joint torques, and tended to arrest less of their angular momentum in their first cycle of response during the two imposed-disturbance tasks. Only some of these tendencies proved statistically significant. The results suggest that healthy elderly subjects with no apparent musculoskeletal or neurological impairments differ from healthy young adult subjects in their responses to modest perturbations of upright stance. However, the differences are generally not large and their magnitudes are perturbation-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Gu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2125, USA
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Persad CC, Giordani B, Chen HC, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB, Wilson CS, Berent S, Guire K, Schultz AB. Neuropsychological predictors of complex obstacle avoidance in healthy older adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 1995; 50:P272-7. [PMID: 7656077 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/50b.5.p272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Global cognitive impairment in older adults has been associated with a greater risk of falling, and tripping has been implicated as an important factor in a large percentage of these falls. In order to evaluate the role of specific cognitive domains in tripping and falling, 23 healthy older adults completed basic and complex obstacle avoidance tasks, as well as a battery of neuropsychological tests. Using multiple regression analysis, a select pattern of neuropsychological measures was found to predict the decrement in performance evident as avoidance task complexity increased. Whereas measures of problem solving, response inhibition, general anxiety, and variability in attention were found to be significant predictors (in that order) of the relative decline in successful obstacle avoidance, measures of visuo-spatial discrimination and memory did not.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Persad
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical Center, USA
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Alexander NB, Mollo JM, Giordani B, Ashton-Miller JA, Schultz AB, Grunawalt JA, Foster NL. Maintenance of balance, gait patterns, and obstacle clearance in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1995; 45:908-14. [PMID: 7746405 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.45.5.908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with cognitive impairment, particularly as a result of Alzheimer's disease (AD), are at increased risk for falls, but it is unclear how, or if, they differ from normal adults in their balance, gait, or ability to clear an obstacle in their path. Using an optoelectronic camera system, we compared body motions and force output at the feet in patients with probable AD (n = 17) with those in healthy older adults (n = 15) while they stood on a force plate or on a beam attached to the force plate that was either stationary or accelerating. Using the same camera system and comparing this AD group with another group of healthy older adults (n = 24), we observed the AD patients during normal walking and while clearing 25- and 152-mm-high obstacles. None of the AD patients had extrapyramidal signs or musculoskeletal impairments. Compared with healthy older adults, normal walking speed was significantly slower in the AD group (p < 0.0001). While clearing either obstacle, the AD patients were significantly slower in their approach (p < 0.0001) and crossing (p < 0.0001) speeds and landed closer to the obstacle after having crossed it (p < 0.02). Moreover, the percent of trials in which a subject made contact with an obstacle was significantly higher in patients with AD (p < 0.005).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ann Arbor VA Medical Center, MI 48109-0405, USA
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Alexander NB, Fry-Welch DK, Marshall LM, Chung CC, Kowalski AM. Healthy young and old women differ in their trunk elevation and hip pivot motions when rising from supine to sitting. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43:338-43. [PMID: 7706620 DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1995.tb05804.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the differences between healthy young and older women in regards to trunk elevation and hip pivot motions when rising from a supine to a seated position. DESIGN Cross-sectional comparison. SETTING University laboratory. PARTICIPANTS Two groups of healthy female volunteers: young adult female controls (n = 22, mean age 23.5 years) and community-dwelling older female adults (n = 17, mean age 73.8 years). MEASUREMENTS Subjects were videotaped as they performed three controlled bed mobility tasks, starting from a supine position: (1) rising to a seated position at the edge of a firm plinth surface (SS); and rising to a seated position without moving to the edge of the bed while either (2) using hands (SUH) or (3) not using hands (SUNH). A series of movements involving the trunk were identified as subjects performed the SS task. RESULTS The older women were more likely to rotate and laterally flex their trunks, particularly in the later phases of the SS task. In addition, during the SS task, the older group was more likely to bear weight on their hip/gluteal area, particularly in the later phases, and more likely to use a broad pivot base, consisting of the hip and the elbow. While all young and old performed the SUH task, less than half of the older group could complete the SUNH task. Moreover, the subgroup of older adults who could not complete the SUNH task may have accounted for much of the differences between the young and the old on the SS task. CONCLUSION Healthy young and older women differ in their ability to rise from a supine to sitting position, primarily in the strategies used to elevate the trunk and facilitate a pivot. Trunk flexion ability likely contributes to the age group differences noted in rising. These data provide the basis for a biomechanical analysis of the critical body segment motions and the strengths required to perform bed mobility tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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Gilsing MG, Van den Bosch CG, Lee SG, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB, Schultz AB, Ericson WA. Association of age with the threshold for detecting ankle inversion and eversion in upright stance. Age Ageing 1995; 24:58-66. [PMID: 7762464 DOI: 10.1093/ageing/24.1.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A randomized quadruple staircase method and probit analysis were used to measure the thresholds for sensation of ankle inversion and eversion by 18 healthy young and 18 healthy old subjects while standing with a foot in a servo-driven cradle. The results of over 3600 trials show that the mean threshold for detecting inversion with a probability of 75% was 0.35 degrees in the older subjects, a value significantly greater than the 0.06 degrees threshold found in the younger group. The corresponding thresholds in eversion were significantly greater in both old (0.52 degrees) and young (0.35 degrees) subjects. Significant, but smaller, age differences were also found in unipedal stance. Few significant sex differences were found. When the velocity of a 0.1 degree inversion movement was increased from 2 to 200 degrees/s the probability of detecting it rose by only 22.6%. Although significantly increased with age, the threshold for sensing rotation in the weight-bearing ankle was measured in tenths of degrees, an order of magnitude better than previously reported (non-weight-bearing) values.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Gilsing
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2125, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Falls during walking are often triggered when a foot contacts an obstacle in its path. Yet little is known about the ability of individuals of any age to successfully negotiate obstacles, especially under time-critical conditions. METHODS The gait of 24 young and 24 old healthy adults (mean ages 23 and 73 years) was studied as they approached and tried to avoid stepping on a band of light, not knowing when or where it might appear on an 8 m-long walkway. This virtual obstacle was placed at the predicted location of the next footfall with available response times (ART) before heel strike that were varied randomly in 50 ms increments from 200 to 450 ms. In addition, their gait was observed as they stepped over a fixed virtual obstacle and over an obstacle that appeared with approximately a 1000 ms ART. RESULTS The old had an increased risk of obstacle contact while negotiating obstacles under time-critical conditions (p = .082). Mean rates-of-success (RS) in obstacle avoidance for the young ranged from .205 at a 200 ms ART to .969 at a .450 ms ART. Corresponding mean RS for the old were .157 and .920. Lower extremity simple reaction time (SRT) test made under static conditions showed that the mean SRT of the old were approximately 80 ms longer than those of the young. Regression analyses suggested that the old in fact would have needed only 30 ms additional ART to achieve RS equal to that of the young for obstacles appearing with ART from 300 to 450 ms. CONCLUSIONS Reductions in ART significantly decreased RS. Delays as small as 50 or 100 ms in observing or reacting to obstacles in real-life situations may significantly lower the rate of success that subjects of any age have in avoiding them. Age differences in SRT do not always reliably indicate age differences in obstacle avoidance under time-critical situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES When large disturbances of upright stance occur, balance must usually be restored by taking a step. We undertook this study to examine the biomechanics of stepping responses to sudden backward pulls at the waist. Primarily, response differences between young and old healthy adults were sought. DESIGN A controlled laboratory study. SUBJECTS Two groups of healthy and physically-fit adult females, 12 of mean age 22 (Young) and 12 of mean age 73 years (Old). MEASUREMENTS Response kinematics were measured. From them, the stepping strategies of the subjects were derived, including the timing, length, and height of the first step taken and the rotations of major body segments and at major body joints that occurred. RESULTS In response to sufficiently large backward pull forces, all subjects responded by taking one or more steps backwards. No significant age group difference appeared in the smallest disturbance for which subjects sometimes used a step response. A significant age group difference appeared in the smallest disturbance at which subjects began consistently to use step responses, and that disturbance was larger for the Old than for the Young. Distinct age group differences were found in stepping strategy. At large disturbance levels, the Young mostly responded by taking a single step, whereas the Old mostly responded by taking multiple steps. The steps taken by the Old, compared with those of the Young, were significantly shorter, had significantly smaller heights, and were taken significantly earlier in the responses. Body segment and joint rotations were generally modest, and few significant age group differences were found in these kinematics. CONCLUSIONS In restoration of perturbed balance by step-taking, the responses of the healthy, physically-fit young and old adults studied here were similar in many respects, but they differed in some important features. Joint range of motion (ROM) limitations are unlikely to explain age group differences in stepping responses to postural disturbances among healthy subjects because the ROM actually used in any of the responses observed were substantially smaller than the ROM available.
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Affiliation(s)
- C W Luchies
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2125
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Shepard NT, Schultz A, Alexander NB, Gu MJ, Boismier T. Postural control in young and elderly adults when stance is challenged: clinical versus laboratory measurements. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1993; 102:508-17. [PMID: 8333672 DOI: 10.1177/000348949310200704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The use of dynamic posturography (EquiTest) for the characterization of postural control biomechanics would be aided by specific knowledge of what the measured data imply about body segment movements. To investigate this issue, the biomechanics of a group of 15 healthy elderly subjects were compared to those of healthy young subjects by using both dynamic posturography and a laboratory movement and force measuring system. The results from EquiTest were analyzed by 1) routine clinical interpretation of data and 2) a clinical research interpretation by subjecting the EquiTest parameters to additional statistical comparison of mean performance of the young and elderly groups. The young-elderly differences from the 2 EquiTest analyses were then compared to the young-elderly differences derived from the laboratory protocol. The routine clinical interpretation of EquiTest data identified the same increases in sway shown by the laboratory study, but did not reveal the more subtle differences indicated by the laboratory study. When the EquiTest data were subjected to additional statistical analysis, the characterization of difference between young and elderly subjects was the same as that of the laboratory study, with the exception of issues of head versus trunk movement, a measure not made by EquiTest. This essential similarity in the characterization of elderly compared to young subjects by both systems suggests 1) that EquiTest is able to detect subtle differences in biomechanics of postural control between young and elderly healthy adult groups and 2) that implied movements of center of gravity, trunk versus lower limbs, and strength of reaction measures are consistently detected by both EquiTest and the laboratory kinematics and dynamics measurement systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- N T Shepard
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Abstract
Quantification of the biomechanical factors that underlie the inability to rise from a chair can help explain why this disability occurs and can aid in the design of chairs and of therapeutic intervention programs. Experimental data collected earlier from 17 young adult and two groups of elderly subjects, 23 healthy and 11 impaired, rising from a standard chair under controlled conditions were analyzed using a planar biomechanical model. The joint torque strength requirements and the location of the floor reaction force at liftoff from the seat in the different groups and under several conditions were calculated. Analyses were also made of how body configurations and the use of hand force affect these joint torques and reaction locations. In all three groups, the required torques at liftoff were modest compared to literature data on voluntary strengths. Among the three groups rising with the use of hands, at the time of liftoff from the seat, the impaired old subjects, on an average, placed the reaction force the most anterior, the healthy old subjects placed it intermediately and the young subjects placed it the least anterior, within the foot support area. Moreover, the results suggest that, at liftoff, all subjects placed more importance on locating the floor reaction force to achieve acceptable postural stability than on diminishing the magnitudes of the needed joint muscle strengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Schultz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2125
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the motions which occur during rising from bed, specifically the motions that appeared to characterize difficulty in rising from a bed in older adults. DESIGN Development of a Mobility assessment tool. SETTING Retirement center and two university laboratories. PARTICIPANTS Three groups of female volunteers: young controls (n = 17, mean age 24), community-dwelling older adults (n = 12, mean age 71), and retirement center-dwelling older adults who admitted to difficulty in rising from a bed (n = 15, mean age 86). INTERVENTION Videotaping of motions occurring during controlled rises from a supine to sitting position. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES These motions were rated on the specially developed Bed Rise Difficulty (BRD) scale, a scale designed to measure movements that characterize difficulty in rising from a bed in older adults. Subject groups were compared in total BRD score, individual BRD item score, and total time to rise. Item relationships and scale reliability were also assessed. RESULTS Older adults with no apparent difficulty in rising based on total time to rise or on the BRD score nevertheless showed differences in upper extremity use when compared to young controls. Older adult subjects with difficulty in rising from a bed, when compared to other older adults with no apparent difficulty, differed more often in their upper extremity and leg use to facilitate the rise. Five BRD scale items, including use of extremity pushes, discontinuity of trunk and leg motion, multiple shoulder/pelvic adjustments, multiple leg adjustments, and poor vertical heel clearance may have best indicated true bed rise difficulty. CONCLUSIONS These data provide a reliable and valid method to characterize difficulty in rising from a bed and provide the basis for biomechanical analyses of the strength and joint ranges of motion required to rise from a bed.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Abstract
Increased postural sway and falling are associated with aging and are likely related to problems with postural control in the elderly. We investigated the motions of individual body segments in 24 healthy young adults and 15 healthy elderly adults (mean ages 26 and 72) in response to four tasks: (a) standing with feet flat on an anteriorly accelerating platform (Flat Translation); standing on a narrow beam support that was (b) stationary (Beam Standing) and (c) accelerating anteriorly (Beam Translation); and (d) standing on a rotatable but otherwise stationary springboard (Springboard Standing). An optoelectronic camera system was used to measure rotations of body segments, particularly regarding their maximum excursions, time to first rotation response, direction of initial rotation, and time to first rotation reversal. In general, larger rotation excursions were noted in the elderly compared to the young group, particularly in the Beam Standing and Beam Translation tasks, but the magnitude of rotation difference was small. All rotation magnitudes were well within the available ranges of motion of the body joints. In both excursion magnitudes and directions of initial rotation, the elderly showed greater variability than the young. In the Beam Translation task, the elderly group, compared to the young, tended to rotate their upper body segments more than in the Flat Translation task. These data suggest that healthy elderly adults with no apparent musculoskeletal or neurological impairments have small but consistent differences in postural control kinematics, particularly when more challenging conditions are presented. Moreover, these data provide the basis for biomechanical analyses of joint torques and other dynamic requirements of these responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan
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Abstract
Falls associated with tripping over an obstacle can be devastating to elderly individuals, yet little is known about the strategies used for stepping over obstacles by either old or young adults. The gait of gender-matched groups of 24 young and 24 old healthy adults (mean ages 22 and 71 years) was studied during a 4 m approach to and while stepping over obstacles of 0, 25, 51, or 152 mm height and in level obstacle-free walking. Optoelectronic cameras and recorders were used to record approach and obstacle crossing speeds as well as bilateral lower extremity kinematic parameters that described foot placement and movement trajectories relative to the obstacle. The results showed that age had no effect on minimum swing foot clearance (FC) over an obstacle. For the 25 mm obstacle, mean FC was 64 mm, or approximately three times that used in level gait; FC increased nonlinearly with obstacle height for all subjects. Although no age differences were found in obstacle-free gait, old adults exhibited a significantly more conservative strategy when crossing obstacles, with slower crossing speed, shorter step length, and shorter obstacle-heel strike distance. In addition, the old adults crossed the obstacle so that it was 10% further forward in their obstacle-crossing step. Although all subjects successfully avoided the riskiest form of obstacle contact, tripping, 4/24 healthy old adults stepped on an obstacle, demonstrating an increased risk for obstacle contact with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Abstract
Although difficulty in rising from a chair is common to elderly people, few studies have compared chair rise performance in young and elderly adults with differing functional abilities. Using an instrumented chair and a videotape analysis, controlled chair rise performances were quantified in three groups of volunteers: young adults (Young, n = 17, mean age 23 years), elderly adults able to rise without the use of armrests (Old Able, n = 23, mean age 72 years), and elderly adults unable to rise without the use of armrests (Old Unable, n = 11, mean age 84 years). Rises both with and without the use of hands were observed. The total time to rise and the percent of that time spent in the two distinct phases of the rise, the body segment rotations used, and the hand forces exerted were measured. Despite no apparent functional impairment, the Old Able compared to the Young spent a larger percent time in the first phase of the rise and rotated their body segments by different amounts. When rising with use of hands, the Old Unable compared to the Old Able group took more time and used different body segment rotations and larger ratios of hand force to body weight. These data quantify chair rise performance in young adults and in elderly adults with differing functional abilities and enable biomechanical analyses of the importance of joint torque strengths and postural stability in that performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alexander
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Alexander NB. Stomas. Self-help groups. Part 1. Clin Gastroenterol 1982; 11:405-14. [PMID: 7105469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Alexander NB, Cotanch PH. The endocrine basis of infertility in women. Nurs Clin North Am 1980; 15:511-24. [PMID: 6777763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Alexander NB. Towards independence with an ostomy. Queens Nurs J 1974; 16:250-3 passim. [PMID: 4493764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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