1
|
Wolfe M, Cramer A, Webb S, Goorskey E, Chushak Y, Mirau P, Arroyo-Currás N, Chávez JL. Rational Approach to Optimizing Conformation-Switching Aptamers for Biosensing Applications. ACS Sens 2024; 9:717-725. [PMID: 38270529 PMCID: PMC10897929 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c02004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
The utilization of structure-switching aptamers (SSAs) has enabled the development of novel sensing platforms for the sensitive and continuous detection of molecules. De novo development of SSAs, however, is complex and laborious. Here we describe a rational approach to SSA optimization that simultaneously improves aptamer binding affinity and introduces target-dependent conformation-switching for compatibility with real-world biosensor applications. Key structural features identified from NMR and computational modeling were used to optimize conformational switching in the presence of target, while large-scale, microarray-based mutation analysis was used to map regions of the aptamer permissive to mutation and identify combinations of mutations with stronger binding affinity. Optimizations were carried out in a relevant biofluid to ensure a seamless transition of the aptamer to a biosensing platform. Initial proof-of-concept for this approach is demonstrated with a cortisol binding aptamer but can easily be translated to other relevant aptamers. Cortisol is a hormone correlated with the stress response that has been associated with various medical conditions and is present at quantifiable levels in accessible biofluids. The ability to continuously track levels of stress in real-time via cortisol monitoring, which can be enabled by the aptamers reported here, is crucial for assessing human health and performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Wolfe
- 711th
Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
- UES,
Inc., Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Alyssa Cramer
- 711th
Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
- UES,
Inc., Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Sean Webb
- 711th
Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
- UES,
Inc., Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Eva Goorskey
- 711th
Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Yaroslav Chushak
- 711th
Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
- Henry
M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Peter Mirau
- Materials
and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department
of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Jorge L. Chávez
- 711th
Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Dunlap JH, Ethier JG, Putnam-Neeb AA, Iyer S, Luo SXL, Feng H, Garrido Torres JA, Doyle AG, Swager TM, Vaia RA, Mirau P, Crouse CA, Baldwin LA. Continuous flow synthesis of pyridinium salts accelerated by multi-objective Bayesian optimization with active learning. Chem Sci 2023; 14:8061-8069. [PMID: 37538827 PMCID: PMC10395269 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc01303k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We report a human-in-the-loop implementation of the multi-objective experimental design via a Bayesian optimization platform (EDBO+) towards the optimization of butylpyridinium bromide synthesis under continuous flow conditions. The algorithm simultaneously optimized reaction yield and production rate (or space-time yield) and generated a well defined Pareto front. The versatility of EDBO+ was demonstrated by expanding the reaction space mid-campaign by increasing the upper temperature limit. Incorporation of continuous flow techniques enabled improved control over reaction parameters compared to common batch chemistry processes, while providing a route towards future automated syntheses and improved scalability. To that end, we applied the open-source Python module, nmrglue, for semi-automated nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy analysis, and compared the acquired outputs against those obtained through manual processing methods from spectra collected on both low-field (60 MHz) and high-field (400 MHz) NMR spectrometers. The EDBO+ based model was retrained with these four different datasets and the resulting Pareto front predictions provided insight into the effect of data analysis on model predictions. Finally, quaternization of poly(4-vinylpyridine) with bromobutane illustrated the extension of continuous flow chemistry to synthesize functional materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John H Dunlap
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
- UES, Inc. Dayton OH 45431 USA
| | - Jeffrey G Ethier
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
- UES, Inc. Dayton OH 45431 USA
| | - Amelia A Putnam-Neeb
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
- National Research Council Research Associate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
| | - Sanjay Iyer
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University West Lafayette IN 47907 USA
| | - Shao-Xiong Lennon Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA 02139 USA
| | - Haosheng Feng
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA 02139 USA
| | | | - Abigail G Doyle
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles CA 90095 USA
| | - Timothy M Swager
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA 02139 USA
| | - Richard A Vaia
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
| | - Peter Mirau
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
| | - Christopher A Crouse
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
| | - Luke A Baldwin
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433 USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sather NA, Sai H, Sasselli IR, Sato K, Ji W, Synatschke CV, Zambrotta RT, Edelbrock JF, Kohlmeyer RR, Hardin JO, Berrigan JD, Durstock MF, Mirau P, Stupp SI. 3D Printing of Supramolecular Polymer Hydrogels with Hierarchical Structure. Small 2021; 17:e2005743. [PMID: 33448102 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202005743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Liquid crystalline hydrogels are an attractive class of soft materials to direct charge transport, mechanical actuation, and cell migration. When such systems contain supramolecular polymers, it is possible in principle to easily shear align nanoscale structures and create bulk anisotropic properties. However, reproducibly fabricating and patterning aligned supramolecular domains in 3D hydrogels remains a challenge using conventional fabrication techniques. Here, a method is reported for 3D printing of ionically crosslinked liquid crystalline hydrogels from aqueous supramolecular polymer inks. Using a combination of experimental techniques and molecular dynamics simulations, it is found that pH and salt concentration govern intermolecular interactions among the self-assembled structures where lower charge densities on the supramolecular polymers and higher charge screening from the electrolyte result in higher viscosity inks. Enhanced hierarchical interactions among assemblies in high viscosity inks increase the printability and ultimately lead to greater nanoscale alignment in extruded macroscopic filaments when using small nozzle diameters and fast print speeds. The use of this approach is demonstrated to create materials with anisotropic ionic and electronic charge transport as well as scaffolds that trigger the macroscopic alignment of cells due to the synergy of supramolecular self-assembly and additive manufacturing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Sather
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, 303 East Superior Street, 11th floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Hiroaki Sai
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, 303 East Superior Street, 11th floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Ivan R Sasselli
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, 303 East Superior Street, 11th floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Kohei Sato
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, 303 East Superior Street, 11th floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Wei Ji
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, 303 East Superior Street, 11th floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Christopher V Synatschke
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, 303 East Superior Street, 11th floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Ryan T Zambrotta
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - John F Edelbrock
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Ryan R Kohlmeyer
- Soft Materials Branch, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
- UES, Inc., 4401 Dayton-Xenia Road, Dayton, OH, 45432, USA
| | - James O Hardin
- Soft Materials Branch, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
- UES, Inc., 4401 Dayton-Xenia Road, Dayton, OH, 45432, USA
| | - John Daniel Berrigan
- Soft Materials Branch, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Michael F Durstock
- Soft Materials Branch, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Peter Mirau
- Soft Materials Branch, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Samuel I Stupp
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, 303 East Superior Street, 11th floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 North St. Clair Street, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Chou B, Mirau P, Jiang T, Wang SW, Shea KJ. Tuning Hydrophobicity in Abiotic Affinity Reagents: Polymer Hydrogel Affinity Reagents for Molecules with Lipid-like Domains. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:1860-8. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beverly Chou
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Peter Mirau
- Air
Force Research Lab-Soft Matter Materials Branch (AFRL/RXAS), United States Air Force, Air Force Material Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, Fairborn, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Tian Jiang
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2575, United States
| | - Szu-Wen Wang
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2575, United States
| | - Kenneth J. Shea
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Koerner H, Kelley J, George J, Drummy L, Mirau P, Bell NS, Hsu JWP, Vaia RA. ZnO Nanorod−Thermoplastic Polyurethane Nanocomposites: Morphology and Shape Memory Performance. Macromolecules 2009. [DOI: 10.1021/ma901671v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hilmar Koerner
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL/RXBN, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
- Universal Technology Corporation, Dayton, Ohio, 45432
| | - John Kelley
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL/RXBN, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
| | - Justin George
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL/RXBN, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
| | - Lawrence Drummy
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL/RXBN, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
| | - Peter Mirau
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL/RXBN, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
| | - Nelson S. Bell
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87185
| | - Julia W. P. Hsu
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87185
| | - Richard A. Vaia
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL/RXBN, 2941 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Jacobs JD, Koerner H, Heinz H, Farmer BL, Mirau P, Garrett PH, Vaia RA. Dynamics of Alkyl Ammonium Intercalants within Organically Modified Montmorillonite: Dielectric Relaxation and Ionic Conductivity. J Phys Chem B 2006; 110:20143-57. [PMID: 17034189 DOI: 10.1021/jp061931l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The low-frequency (0.01 Hz-10 MHz) dynamic characteristics of alkyl quaternary ammonium exchanged montmorillonite (SC20A) were investigated to determine the correlation between temperature-dependent changes in the interlayer structure and collective mobility of the surfactant. From 25 to 165 degrees C, SC20A exhibits two interlayer transitions, one ascribed to the melting of the intercalated alkyl chains of the surfactant (20-40 degrees C) and another associated with an abrupt decrease in the interlayer's coefficient of thermal expansion (100 degrees C). For this temperature range, the excess surfactant and residual electrolytes present in commercially manufactured SC20A enhance the direct current conductivity and increase low-frequency space-charge polarization, which is believed to occur across percolation paths established by the surfaces of the SC20A crystallites. In contrast, a higher-frequency relaxation, which was less sensitive to process history and impurity content, is ascribed to relaxation within the interlayer at the surfactant-aluminosilicate interface electrostatic couple. The temperature dependence of these dielectric relaxations indicated a drastic increase in mobility as the interlayer organic phase transitions from static and glasslike into molten and mobile. Overall, SC20A displayed features of alternating current universality, including time-temperature superposition, common in other types of disordered ion-conducting media. The presence of long-range transport and its sensitivity to low amounts of impurities imply that from a dynamic perspective the local environment of the surfactants are substantially diverse and a minority fraction, such as at the edge of the crystallite (gallery and aluminosilicate layer), may dominate the lower-frequency dielectric response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J David Jacobs
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Green MM, White JL, Mirau P, Scheinfeld MH. C−H to O Hydrogen Bonding: The Attractive Interaction in the Blend between Polystyrene and Poly(vinyl methyl ether). Macromolecules 2006. [DOI: 10.1021/ma061376l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark M. Green
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and the Herman F. Mark Polymer Research Institute, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York 11210; Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078; and 2941 Hobson Way, BLDG 654, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-7750
| | - Jeffery L. White
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and the Herman F. Mark Polymer Research Institute, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York 11210; Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078; and 2941 Hobson Way, BLDG 654, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-7750
| | - Peter Mirau
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and the Herman F. Mark Polymer Research Institute, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York 11210; Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078; and 2941 Hobson Way, BLDG 654, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-7750
| | - Meir H. Scheinfeld
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and the Herman F. Mark Polymer Research Institute, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York 11210; Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078; and 2941 Hobson Way, BLDG 654, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-7750
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
|
9
|
Maliakal A, Katz H, Cotts PM, Subramoney S, Mirau P. Inorganic Oxide Core, Polymer Shell Nanocomposite as a HighKGate Dielectric for Flexible Electronics Applications. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:14655-62. [PMID: 16231918 DOI: 10.1021/ja052035a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Organic/inorganic core shell nanoparticles have been synthesized using high K TiO(2) as the core nanoparticle, and polystyrene as the shell. This material is easy to process and forms transparent continuous thin films, which exhibit a dielectric constant enhancement of over 3 times that of bulk polystyrene. This new dielectric material has been incorporated into capacitors and thin film transistors (TFTs). Mobilities approaching 0.2 cm(2)/V.s have been measured for pentacene TFTs incorporating the new TiO(2) polystyrene nanostructured gate dielectric, indicating good surface properties for pentacene film growth. This novel strategy for generating high K flexible gate dielectrics will be of value in improving organic and flexible electronic device performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Maliakal
- Department of Materials Research, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, New Jersey 07974, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Koerner H, Liu W, Alexander M, Mirau P, Dowty H, Vaia RA. Deformation–morphology correlations in electrically conductive carbon nanotube—thermoplastic polyurethane nanocomposites. POLYMER 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2005.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
11
|
Yang S, Mirau P, Sun J, Gidley DW. Characterization of nanoporous ultra low-k thin films templated by copolymers with different architectures. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0969-806x(03)00183-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
12
|
White JL, Mirau P. Probing miscibility and intermolecular interactions in solid polymer blends using the nuclear Overhauser effect. Macromolecules 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/ma00064a009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
13
|
|
14
|
Abstract
We have refined the initial docking model of the Mg(II)-co-ordinated chromomycin-d(A2G2C2T2) complex (2 drug equivalents per duplex) by a complete relaxation matrix analysis simulation of the two-dimensional nuclear Overhauser effect (NOESY) spectrum of the complex in 2H2O solution. This relaxation matrix refined structure of the complex exhibits the following characteristics. (1) We observe an unwound and elongated duplex that exhibits characteristics distinct from the A and B-DNA family of helices at the central (G-G-C-C).(G-G-C-C) chromomycin dimer binding and flanking sites. On the other hand sugar puckers, glycosidic torsion angles, displacement of the base-pairs from the helix axis and the minor groove width for this central tetranucleotide segment all fall within the A-family of helical parameters. (2) The chromomycin monomers are aligned in a head-to-tail orientation in the Mg(II)-co-ordinated dimer in the complex. The chromophores are aligned with a slight tilt relative to each other and make an angle of 75 degrees between their planes. The C-D-E trisaccharide segments from individual monomers adopt an extended conformation that projects in opposite directions in the dimer. The divalent metal cation is co-ordinated to the O(1) carbonyl and O(9) enolate atoms of the chromophores and aligns them such that the O(9)-Mg-O(9) angle is 170 degrees while all other O-Mg-O angles are in the 95(+/- 15)degrees range. (3) The sequence specificity of the chromomycin dimer for the widened and shallower (G3-G4-C5-C6).(G3-G4-C5-C6) minor groove binding site is associated with intermolecular hydrogen bonds formed between the OH group at C(8) of the chromophore and the minor groove NH2 group at position 2 and N(3) groups of G4 and between the O(1) oxygen of the E-sugar and the minor groove NH2 group at position 2 of G3 in the complex. (4) Additional intermolecular interactions are primarily van der Waals contacts between anomeric and adjacent CH2 protons on each sugar in the C-D-E trisaccharide segments of the chromomycin dimer and the minor groove surface of the DNA. These results provide insights into the induced conformational transitions required to generate a complementary match between the drug dimer and its DNA binding site on complex formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- X L Gao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, N Y 10032
| | | | | |
Collapse
|