Ferric Pyrophosphate Forms Soluble Iron Coordination Complexes with Zinc Compounds and Solubilizing Agents in Extruded Rice and Predicts Increased Iron Solubility and Bioavailability in Young Women

BACKGROUND

Co-extrusion of ferric pyrophosphate (FePP) with solubilizers, citric acid/trisodium citrate (CA/TSC), or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) sharply increases iron absorption. Whether this can protect against the inhibition of iron absorption by phytic acid (PA) is unclear. Sodium pyrophosphate (NaPP) may be a new enhancer of iron absorption from FePP.

OBJECTIVES

Our objectives were to 1) investigate the ligand coordination of iron, zinc, and solubilizers in extruded rice and test associations with iron solubility and absorption, 2) assess whether co-extrusion of FePP + CA/TSC rice can protect against inhibition of iron absorption by PA; 3) determine the effect of zinc oxide (ZnO) compared with zinc sulfate (ZnSO4), and 4) quantify iron absorption from FePP + NaPP rice.

METHODS

We produced labeled 57FePP rice cofortified with ZnSO4 and EDTA, CA/TSC or NaPP, and FePP + EDTA rice with ZnO. We used electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) to characterize iron-ligand complexes. We measured in vitro iron solubility and fractional iron absorption (FIA) in young women (n = 21, age: 22 ± 2 y, BMI: 21.3 ± 1.5 kg/m2 geometric mean plasma ferritin, 28.5 μg/L) compared with ferrous sulfate (58FeSO4). FIA was compared by linear mixed-effect model analysis.

RESULTS

The addition of zinc and solubilizers created new iron coordination complexes of Fe(III) species with a weak ligand field at a high-spin state that correlated with solubility (r2 = 0.50, P = 0.02) and absorption (r2 = 0.72, P = 0.02). Phytic acid reduced FIA from FePP + CA/TSC rice by 50% (P < 0.001), to the same extent as FeSO4. FIA from FePP + EDTA + ZnO and FePP + EDTA + ZnSO4 rice did not significantly differ. Mean FIAs from FePP + EDTA + ZnSO4, FePP + CA/TSC + ZnSO4, and FePP + NaPP + ZnSO4 rice were 9% to 11% and did not significantly differ from each other or from FeSO4.

CONCLUSION

Rice extrusion of FePP with solubilizers resulted in bioavailable iron coordination complexes. In the case of FePP + CA/TSC, PA exerted similar inhibition of FIA as with FeSO4. FePP + NaPP could be a further viable solubilizing agent for rice fortification. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03703739.

Higher Extrusion Temperature Induces Greater Formation of Less Digestible Type V and Retrograded Starch in Iron-Fortified Rice Grains But Does Not Affect Iron Bioavailability: Stable Isotope Studies in Young Women

BACKGROUND

Hot extrusion is widely used to produce iron-fortified rice, but heating may increase resistant starch and thereby decrease iron bioavailability. Cold-extruded iron-fortified rice may have higher bioavailability but has higher iron losses during cooking. Thus, warm extrusion could have nutritional benefits, but this has not been tested. Whether the addition of citric acid (CA) and trisodium citrate (TSC) counteracts any detrimental effect of high-extrusion temperature on iron bioavailability is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to assess the effects of varying processing temperatures on the starch microstructure of extruded iron-fortified rice and resulting iron solubility and iron bioavailability.

METHODS

We produced extruded iron-fortified rice grains at cold, warm, and hot temperatures (40°C, 70°C, and 90°C), with and without CA/TSC at a molar ratio of iron to CA/TSC of 1:0.3:5.5. We characterized starch microstructure using small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering and differential scanning calorimetry, assessed color over 6 mo, and measured in vitro iron solubility. In standardized rice and vegetable test meals consumed by young women (n = 22; mean age: 23 y; geometric mean plasma ferritin: 29.3 μg/L), we measured iron absorption from the fortified rice grains intrinsically labeled with 57ferric pyrophosphate (57FePP), compared with ferrous sulfate (58FeSO4) solution added extrinsically to the meals.

RESULTS

Warm and hot extrusion altered starch morphology from native type A to type V and increased retrograded starch. However, extrusion temperature did not significantly affect iron solubility or iron bioavailability. The geometric mean fractional iron absorption of iron from fortified rice extruded with CA/TSC (8.2%; 95% CI: 7.9%, 11.0%) was more than twice that from extruded rice without CA/TSC (3.0%; 95% CI: 2.7%, 3.4%; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher extrusion temperatures did not affect iron bioavailability from extruded rice in young women, but co-extrusion of CA/TSC with FePP sharply increased iron absorption independently from extrusion temperature. This trial is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03703726.