Current biomarkers and treatment strategies in Alzheimer disease: An overview and future perspectives

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive degenerative disorder first identified by Alois Alzheimer in 1907, poses a significant public health challenge. Despite its prevalence and impact, there is currently no definitive ante mortem diagnosis for AD pathogenesis. By 2050, the United States may face a staggering 13.8 million AD patients. This review provides a concise summary of current AD biomarkers, available treatments, and potential future therapeutic approaches. The review begins by outlining existing drug targets and mechanisms in AD, along with a discussion of current treatment options. We explore various approaches targeting Amyloid β (Aβ), Tau Protein aggregation, Tau Kinases, Glycogen Synthase kinase-3β, CDK-5 inhibitors, Heat Shock Proteins (HSP), oxidative stress, inflammation, metals, Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) modulators, and Notch signaling. Additionally, we examine the historical use of Estradiol (E2) as an AD therapy, as well as the outcomes of Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) that evaluated antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E) and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as alternative treatment options. Notably, positive effects of docosahexaenoic acid nutriment in older adults with cognitive impairment or AD are highlighted. Furthermore, this review offers insights into ongoing clinical trials and potential therapies, shedding light on the dynamic research landscape in AD treatment.

A Review on Five and Six-Membered Heterocyclic Compounds Targeting the Penicillin-Binding Protein 2 (PBP2A) of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Staphylococcus aureus is a common human pathogen. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections pose significant and challenging therapeutic difficulties. MRSA often acquires the non-native gene PBP2a, which results in reduced susceptibility to β-lactam antibiotics, thus conferring resistance. PBP2a has a lower affinity for methicillin, allowing bacteria to maintain peptidoglycan biosynthesis, a core component of the bacterial cell wall. Consequently, even in the presence of methicillin or other antibiotics, bacteria can develop resistance. Due to genes responsible for resistance, S. aureus becomes MRSA. The fundamental premise of this resistance mechanism is well-understood. Given the therapeutic concerns posed by resistant microorganisms, there is a legitimate demand for novel antibiotics. This review primarily focuses on PBP2a scaffolds and the various screening approaches used to identify PBP2a inhibitors. The following classes of compounds and their biological activities are discussed: Penicillin, Cephalosporins, Pyrazole-Benzimidazole-based derivatives, Oxadiazole-containing derivatives, non-β-lactam allosteric inhibitors, 4-(3H)-Quinazolinones, Pyrrolylated chalcone, Bis-2-Oxoazetidinyl macrocycles (β-lactam antibiotics with 1,3-Bridges), Macrocycle-embedded β-lactams as novel inhibitors, Pyridine-Coupled Pyrimidinones, novel Naphthalimide corbelled aminothiazoximes, non-covalent inhibitors, Investigational-β-lactam antibiotics, Carbapenem, novel Benzoxazole derivatives, Pyrazolylpyridine analogues, and other miscellaneous classes of scaffolds for PBP2a. Additionally, we discuss the penicillin-binding protein, a crucial target in the MRSA cell wall. Various aspects of PBP2a, bacterial cell walls, peptidoglycans, different crystal structures of PBP2a, synthetic routes for PBP2a inhibitors, and future perspectives on MRSA inhibitors are also explored.

Unlocking the potential of PROTACs: A comprehensive review of protein degradation strategies in disease therapy

The technology known asPROTACs (PROteolysisTArgeting Chimeras) is a method of protein degradation. Utilising bifunctional small molecules, the ubiquitin-proteosome system (UPS) is used to induce the ubiquitination and degradation of target proteins. In addition to being novel chemical knockdown agents for biological studies that are catalytic, reversible, and rapid, PROTACs used in the treatment for disorders like cancer, immunological disorders, viral diseases, and neurological disorders. The protein degradation field has advanced quickly over the last two years, with a significant rise in research articles on the subject as well as a quick rise in smallmolecule degraders that are currently in or will soon enter the clinical stage. Other new degrading technologies, in addition to PROTAC and molecular glue technology, are also emerging rapidly. In this review article, we mainly focuses on various PROTAC molecules designed with special emphasis on targeted cellular pathways for different diseases i.e., cancer, Viral diseases Immune disorders, Neurodegenerative diseases, etc. We discussed about new technologies based on PROTACs such as Antibody PROTAC, Aptamers, Dual target, Folate caged, TF PROTAC, etc. Also, we listed out the PROTACs which are in clinical trials.

Mycobacterium enoyl acyl carrier protein reductase (InhA): A key target for antitubercular drug discovery

Enoyl acyl carrier protein reductase (InhA) is a key enzyme involved in fatty acid synthesis mainly mycolic acid biosynthesis that is a part of NADH dependent acyl carrier protein reductase family. The aim of the present literature is to underline the different scaffolds or enzyme inhibitors that inhibit mycolic acid biosynthesis mainly cell wall synthesis by inhibiting enzyme InhA. Various scaffolds were identified based on the screening technologies like high throughput screening, encoded library technology, fragment-based screening. The compounds studied include indirect inhibitors (Isoniazid, Ethionamide, Prothionamide) and direct inhibitors (Triclosan/Diphenyl ethers, Pyrrolidine Carboxamides, Pyrroles, Acetamides, Thiadiazoles, Triazoles) with better efficacy against drug resistance. Out of the several scaffolds studied, pyrrolidine carboxamides were found to be the best molecules targeting InhA having good bioavailability properties and better MIC. This review provides with a detailed information, analysis, structure activity relationship and useful insight on various scaffolds as InhA inhibitors.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of novel enzalutamide analogues as potential anticancer agents

The androgen receptor inhibitor, Enzalutamide, proved effective against castration resistance prostate cancer, has demonstrated clinical benefits and increased survival rate in men. However, AR mutation (F876L) converts Enzalutamide from antagonist to agonist indicating a rapid evolution of resistance. Hence, our goal is to overcome this resistance mechanism by designing and developing novel Enzalutamide analogues. We designed a dataset of Enzalutamide derivatives using Enzalutamide's shape and electrostatic features to match with pharmacophoric features essential for tight binding with the androgen receptor. Based on this design strategy ten novel derivatives were selected including 5,5-dimethyl-3-(6-substituted benzo[d]thia/oxazol-2-yl)-2-thioxo-1-(4-(trifluoromethyl)pyridin-2-yl)imidazolidin-4-one (6a-j) for synthesis. All the compounds were evaluated in-vitro on prostate cancer cell lines DU-145, LNCaP and PC3. Interestingly, two compounds 3-(6-hydroxybenzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-5,5-dimethyl-2-thioxo-1-(4-(trifluoromethyl)pyridin-2-yl) imidazolidin-4-one (6c, IC50 - 18.26 to 20.31μM) and 3-(6-hydroxybenzo[d]oxazol-2-yl)-5,5-dimethyl -2-thioxo- 1- (4-(trifluoromethyl) pyridin-2-yl)imidazolidin-4-one (6h, IC50 - 18.26 to 20.31μM) were successful with promising in-vitro antiproliferative activity against prostate cancer cell lines. The binding mechanism of potential androgen receptor inhibitors was further studied by molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations and MM-GBSA binding free energy calculations and found in agreement with the in vitro studies. It provided strong theoretical support to our hypothesis.

Wound with Diabetes: Present Scenario and Future

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder of the endocrine system characterized by an increase in blood glucose level. Several factors, such as pancreatic damage, oxidative stress, infection, genetic factor, obesity, liver dysfunction, play a vital role in the pathogenesis of diabetes, which further leads to serious diabetic complications. The diabetic wound is one such complication where the wound formation occurs, especially due to pressure and its healing process is disrupted due to factors, such as hyperglycemia, neuropathy, nephropathy, peripheral vascular disease, reduction of blood flow, atherosclerosis, impaired fibroblast. The process of wound healing is delayed due to different abnormalities like alteration in nitric oxide level, increase in aldose reductase, sorbitol, and fructose. Therefore, diabetic wound requires more time to heal as compared to the normal wound. Healing time is delayed in diabetic wound due to many factors, such as stress, decreased oxygenation supply, infection, decreased blood flow, impaired proliferation and migration rate, impaired growth factor production, impaired keratinocytes proliferation and migration, and altered vascular endothelial mediators. The current treatment for diabetic wounds includes wound patches, oxygenation therapy, hydrogel patches, gene therapy, laser therapy, and stem cell therapy. Medications with phytoconstituents are also one way to manage the diabetic wound, but it is not more effective for quick healing. The objective of this review is to understand the potential of various management options which are available for diabetic wound, with a special focus on biological cells.

Understanding and implementing alternative solutions to address the COVID-19 pandemic in the sense of public health emergencies

The Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus has spread from China and quickly transmitted to most other countries around the world. The World Health Organization announced COVID-19 as a pandemic that is spreading steadily and soon in most states. Coronavirus genomic characterization showed that it most closely resembled another bat-origin beta-coronavirus. Coronavirus has the largest genome of viruses that have RNA. Spike (S) glycoprotein is present in the virus and is responsible for virus entry into the host cell. COVID-19 can spread through the droplet, direct contact, and aerosol transmission in humans. It can remain in the environment and exists on plastic and steel for the longest time, making it a dangerous and contagious disease that can kill other individuals. The virus has an incubation time of 2 to 14 days. Confirmed cases of COVID-19 have evolved exponentially in the world. Possible preventive steps for disease control include more mask use, hand sanitization, and social distancing. There is no antiviral therapy and only symptomatic care. Many inhibitors of HIV protease and other antimalarial drugs have tested. There is currently no vaccine available for COVID-19 prevention, though others are available in clinical trials. Scientists often use spike proteins for vaccine production. Research is needed to develop a new innovative vaccine and targeted medicine, which will meet people's demands.

Pharmacophore model and atom-based 3D quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) capsid assembly inhibitors

A potential anti-Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) agent with novel mode of action is urgently needed to fight against drug resistance HIV. The HIV capsid protein is important for both late and early stages of the viral replication cycle and emerged as a promising target for the developing of small molecule inhibitors of HIV. We design a Pharmacophore and 3D Quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) model for HIV Capsid Protein inhibitors, which helps to identify overall aspects of molecular structure that govern activity and for the prediction of novel HIV Capsid inhibitors. The hypothesis was developed with a survival score of 3.6.The features, that is, two aromatic rings, one hydrophobic site and two acceptor regions were present in all the active compounds with good fitness score. Pharmacophore model was then validated by a partial least square and regression-based PHASE 3D QSAR cross-validation. The leave-n-out cross validation for test set (Q²) of the hypothesis is 0.636, the standard deviation (SD) value is 0.338, and the variance ratio (F-test) value is 74.5. Hypothesis also showed a leave-n-out cross validation for training set (R², 0.928). Interestingly, the predicted activity of true test set compounds was found in the close vicinity of their experimental activity suggesting the methodology used and models generated can be applied to identify potential new chemical entities with better HIV-1 capsid assembly inhibition.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Discovery of Thiazole Based Bis Heterocyclic System for Anti- Inflammatory Potential

BACKGROUND

We have developed a new series of 36 substituted thiazole derivatives prepared via reaction of substituted benzothiazole-2-amine with substituted phenacyl bromide.

OBJECTIVE

This study was aimed to develop and successfully evaluate anti-inflammatory activity of substituted thiazole derivatives.

METHOD

A new series of 36 substituted thiazole derivatives was synthesized and derivatives were characterized by analytical and spectrometric methods like IR, MS, and 1H NMR. The molecular docking was performed for all the synthesized thiazole derivatives to assess their binding affinities to COX-2 isozyme. The best compounds from docking study were subjected for their anti-inflammatory activity by using rat hind paw edema method.

RESULTS

Results from carrageenan-induced hind paw edema showed that compounds 3h, 5a, 5e, 9d, and 9h possess significant anti-inflammatory activity. The result from vascular permeability indicating inhibition of vascular permeability with compounds 3h and 9h is significant and results from cotton pellet granuloma formation models show greater degree of inhibition with compounds 3h and 5a to contribute to their significant anti-inflammatory activity.

CONCLUSION

This study provides successful development of novel thiazole derivatives. Their binding affinities to COX-2 enzyme were also confirmed, indicating that developed molecules are comparable to diclofenac and hence could be promising anti-inflammatory agents.

Dataset of 2-(2-(4-aryloxybenzylidene) hydrazinyl) benzothiazole derivatives for GQSAR of antitubercular agents

Fragment based Quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) analysis on reported 25 2-(2-(4-aryloxybenzylidene) hydrazinyl) benzothiazole dataset as antitubercular agents were carried out. Molecules in the current dataset were fragmented into six fragments (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6).Group based QSAR Models were derived using Multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis and selected on the basis of various statistical parameters. Dataset of benzothiazole reveled importance of presence of halogen atoms on is essential requirement. The generated models will provide structural requirements of benzothiazole derivatives which can be used to design and develop potent antitubercular derivatives.

A High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) Method for Simultaneous Determination of Diphenhydramine Hydrochloride and Naproxen Sodium in Tablets

A rapid and simple high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) method with densitometry at 230 nm was developed and validated for simultaneous determination of diphenhydramine hydrochloride (DPH) and naproxen sodium (NPS) from pharmaceutical preparation. The separation was carried out on aluminum plates precoated with silica gel 60 F₂₅₄ using mobile phase toluene:methanol:glacial acetic acid (7.5:1:0.2, v/v/v). The linearity range lies between 200 and 1200 ng/band for DPH and 1760 and 10,560 ng/band for NPS with correlation coefficients of 0.994 and 0.995, respectively. The R_f value for DPH is 0.20 ± 0.05 and for NPS is 0.61 ± 0.06. % Recoveries of DPH and NPS was in the range of 99.70%–99.95% and 99.63%–99.95%, respectively. Limit of detection value for DPH was 13.21 ng/band and for NPS was 8.03 ng/band. Limit of quantitation value for DPH was 40.06 ng/band and for NPS was 24.34 ng/band. The developed method was validated as per ICH guidelines. In stability testing, DPH was found unstable to acid and alkaline hydrolysis, and DPH and NPS were found unstable to oxidation, whereas both the drugs were stable to neutral and photodegradation. The proposed method was successfully applied for the routine quantitative analysis of dosage form containing DPH and NPS.

A High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) Method for Simultaneous Determination of Diphenhydramine Hydrochloride and Naproxen Sodium in Tablets

A rapid and simple high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) method with densitometry at 230 nm was developed and validated for simultaneous determination of diphenhydramine hydrochloride (DPH) and naproxen sodium (NPS) from pharmaceutical preparation. The separation was carried out on aluminum plates precoated with silica gel 60 F254 using mobile phase toluene:methanol:glacial acetic acid (7.5:1:0.2, v/v/v). The linearity range lies between 200 and 1200 ng/band for DPH and 1760 and 10,560 ng/band for NPS with correlation coefficients of 0.994 and 0.995, respectively. The R f value for DPH is 0.20 ± 0.05 and for NPS is 0.61 ± 0.06. % Recoveries of DPH and NPS was in the range of 99.70%-99.95% and 99.63%-99.95%, respectively. Limit of detection value for DPH was 13.21 ng/band and for NPS was 8.03 ng/band. Limit of quantitation value for DPH was 40.06 ng/band and for NPS was 24.34 ng/band. The developed method was validated as per ICH guidelines. In stability testing, DPH was found unstable to acid and alkaline hydrolysis, and DPH and NPS were found unstable to oxidation, whereas both the drugs were stable to neutral and photodegradation. The proposed method was successfully applied for the routine quantitative analysis of dosage form containing DPH and NPS.