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Doddaraju P, Dharmappa PM, Thiagarayaselvam A, Vijayaraghavareddy P, Bheemanahalli R, Basavaraddi PA, Malagondanahalli MKV, Kambalimath S, Thulasiram HV, Sreeman SM. Comprehensive analysis of physiological and metabolomic responses to drought reveals specific modulation of acquired tolerance mechanisms in rice. Physiol Plant 2023; 175:e13917. [PMID: 37087573 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Mild stresses induce "acquired tolerance traits" (ATTs) that provide tolerance when stress becomes severe. Here, we identified the genetic variability in ATTs among a panel of rice germplasm accessions and demonstrated their relevance in protecting growth and productivity under water-limited conditions. Diverse approaches, including physiological screens, association mapping and metabolomics, were adopted and revealed 43 significant marker-trait associations. Nontargeted metabolomic profiling of contrasting genotypes revealed 26 "tolerance-related-induced" primary and secondary metabolites in the tolerant genotypes (AC-39000 and AC-39020) compared to the susceptible one (BPT-5204) under water-limited condition. Metabolites that help maintain cellular functions, especially Calvin cycle processes, significantly accumulated more in tolerant genotypes, which resulted in superior photosynthetic capacity and hence water use efficiency. Upregulation of the glutathione cycle intermediates explains the ROS homeostasis among the tolerant genotypes, maintaining spikelet fertility, and grain yield under stress. Bioinformatic dissection of a major effect quantitative trait locus on chromosome 8 revealed genes controlling metabolic pathways leading to the production of osmolites and antioxidants, such as GABA and raffinose. The study also led to the identification of specific trait donor genotypes that can be effectively used in translational crop improvement activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pushpa Doddaraju
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Prathibha M Dharmappa
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bengaluru, India
| | | | | | - Raju Bheemanahalli
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA
| | - Priyanka A Basavaraddi
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
- Department of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | | | - Sumanth Kambalimath
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | | | - Sheshshayee M Sreeman
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
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2
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Barmukh R, Roorkiwal M, Dixit GP, Bajaj P, Kholova J, Smith MR, Chitikineni A, Bharadwaj C, Sreeman SM, Rathore A, Tripathi S, Yasin M, Vijayakumar AG, Rao Sagurthi S, Siddique KHM, Varshney RK. Characterization of 'QTL-hotspot' introgression lines reveals physiological mechanisms and candidate genes associated with drought adaptation in chickpea. J Exp Bot 2022; 73:7255-7272. [PMID: 36006832 PMCID: PMC9730794 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erac348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
'QTL-hotspot' is a genomic region on linkage group 04 (CaLG04) in chickpea (Cicer arietinum) that harbours major-effect quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for multiple drought-adaptive traits, and it therefore represents a promising target for improving drought adaptation. To investigate the mechanisms underpinning the positive effects of 'QTL-hotspot' on seed yield under drought, we introgressed this region from the ICC 4958 genotype into five elite chickpea cultivars. The resulting introgression lines (ILs) and their parents were evaluated in multi-location field trials and semi-controlled conditions. The results showed that the 'QTL-hotspot' region improved seed yield under rainfed conditions by increasing seed weight, reducing the time to flowering, regulating traits related to canopy growth and early vigour, and enhancing transpiration efficiency. Whole-genome sequencing data analysis of the ILs and parents revealed four genes underlying the 'QTL-hotspot' region associated with drought adaptation. We validated diagnostic KASP markers closely linked to these genes using the ILs and their parents for future deployment in chickpea breeding programs. The CaTIFY4b-H2 haplotype of a potential candidate gene CaTIFY4b was identified as the superior haplotype for 100-seed weight. The candidate genes and superior haplotypes identified in this study have the potential to serve as direct targets for genetic manipulation and selection for chickpea improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutwik Barmukh
- Centre of Excellence in Genomics and Systems Biology, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India
- Department of Genetics, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
| | | | - Girish P Dixit
- ICAR - Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur, India
| | - Prasad Bajaj
- Centre of Excellence in Genomics and Systems Biology, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India
| | - Jana Kholova
- Crops Physiology & Modeling, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India
- Department of Information Technologies, Faculty of Economics and Management, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Millicent R Smith
- Centre of Excellence in Genomics and Systems Biology, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Annapurna Chitikineni
- Centre of Excellence in Genomics and Systems Biology, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India
| | - Chellapilla Bharadwaj
- The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Delhi, India
| | - Sheshshayee M Sreeman
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Abhishek Rathore
- Centre of Excellence in Genomics and Systems Biology, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India
| | | | - Mohammad Yasin
- RAK College of Agriculture, Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Gwalior, India
| | | | | | - Kadambot H M Siddique
- The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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3
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Reddy BHR, Thankachan P, Hatakayama M, Hiremath N, Moretti D, Nanjareddy YA, Thumilan MB, Ravikumar RL, Phadnis S, Bose B, Poveda L, Kalaiah G, Zimmermann MB, Shimizu KK, Schlapbach R, Kurpad AV, Sreeman SM. A Natural Low Phytic Acid Finger Millet Accession Significantly Improves Iron Bioavailability in Indian Women. Front Nutr 2022; 8:791392. [PMID: 35402470 PMCID: PMC8988890 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.791392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron deficiency and anemia are common in low- and middle-income countries. This is due to a poor dietary iron density and low iron absorption resulting from the high inhibitory phytic acid content in cereal and millet-based diets. Here, we report that a naturally occurring low phytic acid finger millet accession (571 mg 100 g−1), stable across three growing seasons with normal iron content (3.6 mg 100 g−1), increases iron absorption by 3-folds in normal Indian women. The accessions differing in grain phytic acid content, GE 2358 (low), and GE1004 (high) were selected from a core collection of 623 accessions. Whole genome re-sequencing of the accessions revealed significant single nucleotide variations segregating them into distinct clades. A non-synonymous mutation in the EcABCC phytic acid transporter gene between high and low accessions could affect gene function and result in phytic acid differences. The highly sensitive dual stable-isotope erythrocyte incorporation method was adopted to assess the fractional iron absorption. The low phytic acid accession resulted in a significantly higher iron absorption compared with the high phytic acid accession (3.7 vs. 1.3%, p < 0.05). The low phytic acid accession could be effective in preventing iron deficiency in regions where finger millet is habitually eaten. With its low water requirement, finger millet leaves low environmental footprints and hence would be an excellent sustainable strategy to mitigate iron deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bellam H. Rajashekar Reddy
- Division of Nutrition, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Prashanth Thankachan
- Division of Nutrition, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Masoami Hatakayama
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Netravati Hiremath
- All India Coordinated Research Project (Foods and Nutrition), University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Diego Moretti
- Laboratory for Human Nutrition, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yellodu A. Nanjareddy
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Mathi B. Thumilan
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | | | - Shamprasad Phadnis
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Beena Bose
- Division of Nutrition, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Lucy Poveda
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Geetha Kalaiah
- All India Coordinated Research Project (Foods and Nutrition), University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Michael B. Zimmermann
- Laboratory for Human Nutrition, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kentaro K. Shimizu
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Anura V. Kurpad
- Division of Nutrition, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences, Bengaluru, India
- Department of Physiology, St. John's Medical College, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Sheshshayee M. Sreeman
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
- *Correspondence: Sheshshayee M. Sreeman
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4
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Varshney RK, Thudi M, Roorkiwal M, He W, Upadhyaya HD, Yang W, Bajaj P, Cubry P, Rathore A, Jian J, Doddamani D, Khan AW, Garg V, Chitikineni A, Xu D, Gaur PM, Singh NP, Chaturvedi SK, Nadigatla GVPR, Krishnamurthy L, Dixit GP, Fikre A, Kimurto PK, Sreeman SM, Bharadwaj C, Tripathi S, Wang J, Lee SH, Edwards D, Polavarapu KKB, Penmetsa RV, Crossa J, Nguyen HT, Siddique KHM, Colmer TD, Sutton T, von Wettberg E, Vigouroux Y, Xu X, Liu X. Resequencing of 429 chickpea accessions from 45 countries provides insights into genome diversity, domestication and agronomic traits. Nat Genet 2019; 51:857-864. [DOI: 10.1038/s41588-019-0401-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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5
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Vemanna RS, Bakade R, Bharti P, Kumar MKP, Sreeman SM, Senthil-Kumar M, Makarla U. Cross-Talk Signaling in Rice During Combined Drought and Bacterial Blight Stress. Front Plant Sci 2019; 10:193. [PMID: 30894866 PMCID: PMC6415615 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Due to climatic changes, rice crop is affected by moisture deficit stress and pathogens. Tissue water limitation besides reducing growth rates, also renders the crop susceptible to the infection by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) that causes bacterial leaf blight. Independently, both drought adaptation and Xoo resistance have been extensively studied. Though the cross-talk between drought and Xoo stress responses have been explored from individual stress studies, examining the combinatorial stress response is limited in rice. Recently published combined stress studies showed that under the combined stress, maintenance of carbon assimilation is hindered and such response is regulated by overlapping cellular mechanisms that are different from either of the individual stresses. Several receptors, MAP kinases, transcription factors, and ribosomal proteins, are predicted for playing a role in cellular homeostasis and protects cells from combined stress effects. Here we provide a critical analysis of these aspects using information from the recently published combined stress literature. This review is useful for researchers to comprehend combinatorial stress response of rice plants to drought and Xoo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramu S. Vemanna
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture Sciences, Bengaluru, India
- Regional Center for Biotechnology, Faridabad, India
- *Correspondence: Ramu S. Vemanna, ;
| | - Rahul Bakade
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Pooja Bharti
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - M. K. Prasanna Kumar
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | | | | | - Udayakumar Makarla
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture Sciences, Bengaluru, India
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6
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Sreeman SM, Vijayaraghavareddy P, Sreevathsa R, Rajendrareddy S, Arakesh S, Bharti P, Dharmappa P, Soolanayakanahally R. Corrigendum: Introgression of Physiological Traits for a Comprehensive Improvement of Drought Adaptation in Crop Plants. Front Chem 2018; 6:382. [PMID: 30186834 PMCID: PMC6118222 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sheshshayee M Sreeman
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | | | - Rohini Sreevathsa
- ICAR-National Research Centre for Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Sowmya Rajendrareddy
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Smitharani Arakesh
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Pooja Bharti
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Prathibha Dharmappa
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Raju Soolanayakanahally
- Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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7
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Sreeman SM, Vijayaraghavareddy P, Sreevathsa R, Rajendrareddy S, Arakesh S, Bharti P, Dharmappa P, Soolanayakanahally R. Introgression of Physiological Traits for a Comprehensive Improvement of Drought Adaptation in Crop Plants. Front Chem 2018; 6:92. [PMID: 29692985 PMCID: PMC5903164 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Burgeoning population growth, industrial demand, and the predicted global climate change resulting in erratic monsoon rains are expected to severely limit fresh water availability for agriculture both in irrigated and rainfed ecosystems. In order to remain food and nutrient secure, agriculture research needs to focus on devising strategies to save water in irrigated conditions and to develop superior cultivars with improved water productivity to sustain yield under rainfed conditions. Recent opinions accruing in the scientific literature strongly favor the adoption of a "trait based" crop improvement approach for increasing water productivity. Traits associated with maintenance of positive tissue turgor and maintenance of increased carbon assimilation are regarded as most relevant to improve crop growth rates under water limiting conditions and to enhance water productivity. The advent of several water saving agronomic practices notwithstanding, a genetic enhancement strategy of introgressing distinct physiological, morphological, and cellular mechanisms on to a single elite genetic background is essential for achieving a comprehensive improvement in drought adaptation in crop plants. The significant progress made in genomics, though would provide the necessary impetus, a clear understanding of the "traits" to be introgressed is the most essential need of the hour. Water uptake by a better root architecture, water conservation by preventing unproductive transpiration are crucial for maintaining positive tissue water relations. Improved carbon assimilation associated with carboxylation capacity and mesophyll conductance is important in sustaining crop growth rates under water limited conditions. Besides these major traits, we summarize the available information in literature on classifying various drought adaptive traits. We provide evidences that Water-Use Efficiency when introgressed with moderately higher transpiration, would significantly enhance growth rates and water productivity in rice through an improved photosynthetic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rohini Sreevathsa
- ICAR-National Research Centre for Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Sowmya Rajendrareddy
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Smitharani Arakesh
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Pooja Bharti
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Prathibha Dharmappa
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - Raju Soolanayakanahally
- Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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8
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Hatakeyama M, Aluri S, Balachadran MT, Sivarajan SR, Patrignani A, Grüter S, Poveda L, Shimizu-Inatsugi R, Baeten J, Francoijs KJ, Nataraja KN, Reddy YAN, Phadnis S, Ravikumar RL, Schlapbach R, Sreeman SM, Shimizu KK. Multiple hybrid de novo genome assembly of finger millet, an orphan allotetraploid crop. DNA Res 2017; 25:39-47. [PMID: 28985356 PMCID: PMC5824816 DOI: 10.1093/dnares/dsx036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn) is an important crop for food security because of its tolerance to drought, which is expected to be exacerbated by global climate changes. Nevertheless, it is often classified as an orphan/underutilized crop because of the paucity of scientific attention. Among several small millets, finger millet is considered as an excellent source of essential nutrient elements, such as iron and zinc; hence, it has potential as an alternate coarse cereal. However, high-quality genome sequence data of finger millet are currently not available. One of the major problems encountered in the genome assembly of this species was its polyploidy, which hampers genome assembly compared with a diploid genome. To overcome this problem, we sequenced its genome using diverse technologies with sufficient coverage and assembled it via a novel multiple hybrid assembly workflow that combines next-generation with single-molecule sequencing, followed by whole-genome optical mapping using the Bionano Irys® system. The total number of scaffolds was 1,897 with an N50 length >2.6 Mb and detection of 96% of the universal single-copy orthologs. The majority of the homeologs were assembled separately. This indicates that the proposed workflow is applicable to the assembly of other allotetraploid genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaomi Hatakeyama
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse. 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Quartier Sorge - Batiment Genopode, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sirisha Aluri
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mathi Thumilan Balachadran
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse. 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Sajeevan Radha Sivarajan
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse. 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Andrea Patrignani
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon Grüter
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lucy Poveda
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rie Shimizu-Inatsugi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse. 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Karaba N Nataraja
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560065, India
| | | | - Shamprasad Phadnis
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Ramapura L Ravikumar
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Ralph Schlapbach
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sheshshayee M Sreeman
- Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Kentaro K Shimizu
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse. 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Kihara Institute for Biological Research, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
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