Assessing the Acute Toxicological Effects of Annona muricata Leaf Ethanol Extract on Rats: Biochemical, Histopathological, and Metabolomics Analyses

Annona muricata is a common plant used in Africa and South America to manage various types of disease. However, there is insufficient toxicological information or published standard available regarding repeated dose animal toxicity data. As part of the safety assessment, we exposed Sprague Dawley rats to an acute oral toxicity of A. muricata. The intent of the current study was to use advanced proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) in serum and urinary metabolomics evaluation techniques to provide the in vivo acute toxicological profile of A. muricata leaf ethanol extract in accordance with the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD) 423 guidelines. A single 2000 mg/kg dose of A. muricata leaf ethanol extract was administered to Sprague Dawley rats over an observational period of 14 days. The toxicity evaluation (physical and behavior observation, body weight, renal function test, liver function test and 1H NMR analysis) showed no abnormal toxicity. Histopathological analysis manifested mild changes, i.e., the treated kidney manifested mild hypercellularity of mesangial cells and mild red blood cell congestion. In addition, there was mild hemorrhage into tissue with scattered inflammatory cells and mild dilated central vein with fibrosis in the liver. However, the changes were very mild and not significant which correlate with other analyses conducted in this study (biochemical test and 1H NMR metabolomic analysis). On the other hand, urinary 1H NMR analysis collected on day 15 revealed high similarity on the metabolite variations for both untreated and treated groups. Importantly, the outcomes suggest that A. muricata leaf ethanol extract can be safely consumed at a dose of 2000 mg/kg and the LD50 must be more than 2000 mg/kg.

Prebiotic properties of fermented ceri Terengganu (Lepisanthes fruticosa) beverage by survival of lactic acid bacteria and its antibacterial activity

The present study was undertaken to investigate the survival of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in the fermented ceri Terengganu beverage and its antibacterial activity. The preliminary study of the survival of five selected strains of LAB involved was Bifidobacterium bifidum UABb-10™, Lactobacillus acidophilus DDS®-1, Lactobacillus paracasei UALpc -04™, Lactobacillus plantarum UALp-05™, and Streptococcus thermophilus UASt-09™. The viability of each strain was tested in fermented ceri Terengganu beverage (pH 3.25) where all strains showed a survival rate of at least 92.5%. A total of five types of foodborne pathogens namely Escherichia coli O517:H7 UPMEC32, Listeria monocytogenes ATCC® 51772TM, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis MDC15, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium ATCC® 53648TM and Streptococcus gallolyticus ATCC® 9809TM were selected to determine the antibacterial activity and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC>99) of fermented ceri Terengganu beverage. Antibacterial activity using the agar well diffusion method inhibited five tested food-borne pathogens at varying extents of inhibition zone ranging between 12.92 to 18.50 mm in diameter. Another antibacterial activity assay using the broth microdilution method also confirmed the 100% inhibition effect of fermented ceri Terengganu beverage against these selected pathogenic microorganisms even though the beverage has been diluted to 50%. The synergetic effect of a significant amount of multiple organic acids present in fermented ceri Terengganu beverages was the main factor contributing to its potent antibacterial properties. This finding indicated the potential of fermented ceri Terengganu beverage as a prebiotic beverage and might be able to reduce the risk of food poisoning incidence as it has shown a good antibacterial effect against selected foodborne pathogens.

Annona muricata: Comprehensive Review on the Ethnomedicinal, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Aspects Focusing on Antidiabetic Properties

Plants have played an important role over the centuries in providing products that have been used to help combat ailments and diseases. Many products originating from fresh, dried-plant materials, or extracts are utilized as community remedies in traditional practices or even in modern medicine. The Annonaceae family contains different types of bioactive chemical properties, such as alkaloids, acetogenins, flavonoids, terpenes, and essential oil, meaning the plants in this family are potential therapeutic agents. Belonging to the Annonaceae family, Annona muricata Linn. has recently attracted the attention of scientists for its medicinal value. It has been utilized as a medicinal remedy since ancient times to treat and improve various diseases, for example, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, cancer, and bacterial infections. This review, therefore, highlights the important characteristic and therapeutic effect of A. muricata along with future perspectives on its hypoglycemic effect. The most-common name is soursop, referring to its sour and sweet flavors, while in Malaysia, this tree is commonly called 'durian belanda'. Furthermore, A. muricata contains a high content of phenolic compounds in the roots and leaves. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that A. muricata has the pharmacological effects of anti-cancer, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, and wound healing. With regard to its anti-diabetic effect, mechanisms of inhibiting glucose absorption via α-glucosidase and α-amylase activity inhibition, increasing glucose tolerance and glucose uptake by peripheral tissues, and stimulating insulin release or acting like insulin were deeply discussed. There is still a significant research gap, and future studies are required to conduct detailed investigations and gain a better molecular understanding of A. muricata's anti-diabetic potential, especially by using the metabolomics approach.

Sub-acute toxicity effects of modified sago starch edible films intake on haematology, histopathology, body and organ weight changes in Sprague Dawley rats

The toxicity of edible film from modified sago starch was evaluated through a sub-acute toxicity study on Sprague Dawley rats. Rats were given edible film at concentrations of 2 and 5 g/kg bodyweight for 28 consecutive days. Control rats only received commercial pellets. No significant changes were observed in the weight of rats and internal organs in low and high dose groups as well as control groups (p>0.05). The food intake was in a range of 15-19 g/week. The haematology analysis showed significantly higher haemoglobin (HBG), haematocrit (HCT) and red blood cells (RBC) in the high dose group of rats. Elevated haematocrit level might indicate a dehydrated condition in rats as a result of the significant reduction of fluid intake in low and high dose groups as compared to control rats. Besides haematology, observation of histopathology effects of edible film on rats with an experimental diet found insignificant vacuolation in hepatocytes. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that edible film from modified sago starch is safe and non-toxic for consumption at a low dose, 2 g/kg body weight based on the 28 days of sub-acute toxicity study.

Functional papaya beverage increases healthy gut microbiota in Streptozotocininduced diabetic Sprague Dawley rats

Diabetes mellitus is a silent killer illness, characterized by hyperglycaemia effect and can cause many health complications. A new functional papaya beverage was produced via selected pure symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) which offers an alternative food therapy in regulating blood glucose and its efficacy was evaluated using Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic Sprague Dawley rats for one month treatment. Under moderate diabetes condition, SCOBY papaya beverage was shown able to reduce high blood glucose in diabetic rats to normal level, comparably effective with commercial drug, Metformin. Not only that, it also helped restore body weight of diabetic rats to a healthier state with a gradual increment of body weight observed weekly. In contrast, untreated diabetic rats experienced a sharp rise in blood glucose with stunted body weight. Nutrigenomic studies were conducted to identify the mechanisms that support the effectiveness of SCOBY papaya beverage as an anti-diabetic therapy. Evidence from quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis disclosed significant higher expression on gene markers related to insulin receptor substrate 1 (Irs1), glucose transporter (Slc2a8) and glutathione S-transferase mu 1 (Gstm1), but lower expression of gene markers indicative of diabetes complications and inflammation e.g., tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase 1 (Timp1), nuclear factor kappa B subunit 1 (Nfkb1) and nitric oxide 2 (NOS2) in diabetic rats treated with SCOBY papaya beverage and Metformin (p<0.05). SCOBY papaya treated diabetic rats showed an increment of short chain fatty acids content and gut microbiota enriched with some beneficial microbes particularly for Alloprevotella, Ruminococcus 1, Lachnospiraceae NK4A136, Prevotellaceae UCG-001 and Prevotellaceae NK3B31 compared to untreated diabetic rats. These data support the effectiveness of SCOBY papaya as a functional beverage in improving intestinal health by changing the environment of the microbiome of diabetic rats, in turn offering costeffective food therapies in blood glucose regulation.

Fermented jackfruit leaf beverage offers new affordable and effective diabetes therapy

Diabetes mellitus is complicated multifactorial disorders characterised by hyperglycemia or glucose intolerance. Globally, the number of people suffering from diabetes has increased steadily. Jackfruit leaf, a rich source of phytochemicals offers the opportunity for the development of value-added products. A fermented jackfruit leaf beverage product was developed using symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) as cost-effective beneficial treatment for mankind in the management of diabetes. The effectiveness of this fermented jackfruit leaf beverage as an anti-diabetic therapy agent was evaluated using Streptozotocin-induced Sprague Dawley rats model for 4 weeks. The findings depict that, there was a remarkable reduction of blood glucose level in fermented jackfruit leaf-treated diabetic rats as opposed to non-treated diabetic rats, comparable with metformin-treated diabetic rats. The body weight and various relative organ weights of diabetic rats treated with fermented jackfruit leaf beverage showed a healthy recovery sign from diabetes symptoms. The blood haematology profile, liver and kidney function analysis revealed no toxic effect of prolong fermented jackfruit leaf beverage consumption. These results indicated that fermented jackfruit leaf beverage has similar anti-diabetic properties with commercial anti-diabetic drugs with no adverse side effect. Promisingly, it offers a cheaper source to alleviate the diabetes epidemic in a natural way.