A two-arm analysis of the immune response to heterologous boosting of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines

Several vaccine programs were introduced during the COVID-19 pandemic, which included inactivated virus, DNA viral vectors and mRNA vaccines. Booster programs are recommended, especially for those in high-risk groups. However, many of these booster programs involve heterologous vaccines. This study enrolled volunteers who first received two full-dose CoronaVac vaccinations before receiving heterologous boosters with DNA- and/or mRNA-vaccines for an additional 2 doses (n = 40) or an additional 3 doses (n = 16). Our results showed no difference in side effects, neutralizing antibodies, or T-cell responses for any of the heterologous vaccination programs. However, the neutralizing capacity and IFN-γ responses against the Omicron variant in volunteers who received 4 or 5 doses were improved. Polarization of peripheral memory T cells after stimulation in all booster groups with Omicron peptide showed an increased trend of naïve and central memory phenotypes of both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, suggesting that exposure to Omicron antigens will drive T cells into a lymphoid resident T cell phenotype. Our data support a continuous vaccination program to maximize the effectiveness of immunity, especially in people at high risk. Furthermore, the number of boosting doses is important for maintaining immunity.

Phenotypic and functional changes of T cell subsets after CoronaVac vaccination

BACKGROUND

The pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a major global public health concern and several protective vaccines, or preventive/therapeutic approaches have been developed. Sinovac-CoronaVac, an inactivated whole virus vaccine, can protect against severe COVID-19 disease and hospitalization, but less is known whether it elicits long-term T cell responses and provides prolonged protection.

METHODS

This is a longitudinal surveillance study of SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD)-specific IgG levels, neutralizing antibody levels (NAb), T cell subsets and activation, and memory B cells of 335 participants who received two doses of CoronaVac. SARS-CoV-2 RBD-specific IgG levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), while NAb were measured against two strains of SARS-CoV-2, the Wuhan and Delta variants. Activated T cells and subsets were identified by flow cytometry. Memory B and T cells were evaluated by enzyme-linked immune absorbent spot (ELISpot).

FINDINGS

Two doses of CoronaVac elicited serum anti-RBD antibody response, elevated B cells with NAb capacity and CD4⁺ T cell-, but not CD8⁺ T cell-responses. Among the CD4⁺ T cells, CoronaVac activated mainly Th2 (CD4⁺ T) cells. Serum antibody levels significantly declined three months after the second dose.

INTERPRETATION

CoronaVac mainly activated B cells but T cells, especially Th1 cells, were poorly activated. Activated T cells were mainly Th2 biased, demonstrating development of effector B cells but not long-lasting memory plasma cells. Taken together, these results suggest that protection with CoronaVac is short-lived and that a third booster dose of vaccine may improve protection.

Bacterial challenge-associated metabolic phenotypes in Hermetia illucens defining nutritional and functional benefits

Black soldier fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens) is popular for its applications in animal feed, waste management and antimicrobial peptide source. The major advantages of BSF larva include their robust immune system and high nutritional content that can be further developed into more potential agricultural and medical applications. Several strategies are now being developed to exploit their fullest capabilities and one of these is the immunity modulation using bacterial challenges. The mechanism underlying metabolic responses of BSF to different bacteria has, however, remained unclear. In the current study, entometabolomics was employed to investigate the metabolic phenoconversion in response to either Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, or combined challenges in BSF larva. We have, thus far, characterised 37 metabolites in BSF larva challenged with different bacteria with the major biochemical groups consisting of amino acids, organic acids, and sugars. The distinct defense mechanism-specific metabolic phenotypes were clearly observed. The combined challenge contributed to the most significant metabolic phenoconversion in BSF larva with the dominant metabolic phenotypes induced by S. aureus. Our study suggested that the accumulation of energy-related metabolites provided by amino acid catabolism is the principal metabolic pathway regulating the defense mechanism. Therefore, combined challenge is strongly recommended for raising BSF immunity as it remarkably triggered amino acid metabolisms including arginine and proline metabolism and alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism along with purine metabolism and pyruvate metabolism that potentially result in the production of various nutritional and functional metabolites.

A comparative in vitro study on the cerumenolytic effect of docusate sodium versus 2.5% sodium bicarbonate using UV-visible absorption spectroscopy

Objective

To compare cerumenolytic effects of docusate sodium and of 2.5% sodium bicarbonate - In vitro study; observe characteristics of the solution, using ultraviolet–visible (UV/Vis) spectroscopy, and measurement of cholesterol levels.

Methods

Samples of human cerumen were mixed to form a relatively homogenous paste. Samples of about 500 mg were weighed and packed at the bottom of the test tubes. To each tube was added 1.5 ml of either docusate sodium or 2.5% sodium bicarbonate. Tubes were incubated at 36.4 °C in a water bath for 15, 30 or 60 min. Following incubation, the supernatant solution was pipetted into a cuvette. The cerumenolytic efficacy was defined as the absorbance (recorded at 350 nm and 400 nm) of the solutions. Results were the average of three replicates. A cholesterol level of each sample was then determined to confirm the result.

Results

Turbidity was much greater in tubes containing 2.5% sodium bicarbonate, indicating dissolution of cerumen. Mean difference of absorbance values measured at 350 nm and 400 nm after 15, 30, 60 min digestions were 1.93 [95%CI 1.49–2.38, p-value <0.001] and 1.81 [95%CI 1.21–2.41, p-value <0.001], respectively. Furthermore, levels of cholesterol were greater in tubes containing 2.5% sodium bicarbonate solution after digestion than in tubes containing docusate sodium; 11 mg/dl [95%CI 1.47–24.14, p-value = 0.083]

Conclusion

Both spectrophotometric and cholesterol level assessments suggest that 2.5% sodium bicarbonate has a higher cerumenolytic effect than docusate sodium. In other words, cerumen can be dissolved in 2.5% sodium bicarbonate much better than docusate sodium in a time-dependent manner.

Antimicrobial resistance and genetic diversity of the SXT element in Vibrio cholerae from clinical and environmental water samples in northeastern Thailand

Multidrug resistance in V. cholerae has been increasing around the world including northeastern Thailand. The aquatic environment is a reservoir of V. cholerae and might be an important source of resistant strains. The aims of this study were to investigate the phylogenetic relationships of int_SXT gene sequences from 31 clinical and 14 environmental V. cholerae O1 and non-O1/non-O139 isolates and 11 sequences amplified directly from environmental water samples. We also amplified class 1 integrons, the SXT elements (targeting the int_SXT gene) and antimicrobial resistance genes directly from water samples. Phylogenetic analysis displayed two major distinct clusters (clusters 1 and 2). Most V. cholerae O1 (19/20, 95%) and non-O1/non-O139 isolates (8/11, 72.7%) from clinical sources, and all sequences obtained directly from water samples, belonged to cluster 1. Cluster 2 mostly comprised environmental non-O1/non-O139 isolates (10/12, 83.3%). We successfully amplified the SXT elements directly from17.5% of water samples. Associated resistance genes were also amplified as follows: sul2 (41.3% of water samples), dfrA1 (60%), dfr18 (33.8%), strB (70%) and tetA (2.5%). Class 1 integrons were not found in water samples, indicating that the SXT element was the major contributor of multidrug resistance determinants in this region. The SXT element and antimicrobial resistance genes could be transferred from clinical V. cholerae O1 to environmental V. cholerae non-O1/non-O139 was demonstrated by conjugation experiment. These findings indicate that there may have been cross dissemination and horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of the SXT element harbored by V. cholerae O1 and non-O1/non-O139 strains isolated from clinical and environmental water sources. Environmental water might be an important source of antimicrobial resistance genes in V. cholerae in this region. Direct detection of antimicrobial resistance genes in water samples can be used for monitoring the spread of such genes in the ecosystem.

Cloning, expression, and characterization of a peptidoglycan hydrolase from the Burkholderia pseudomallei phage ST79

The lytic phage ST79 of Burkholderia pseudomallei can lyse a broad range of its host including antibiotic resistant isolates from within using a set of proteins, holin, lysB, lysC and endolysin, a peptidoglycan (PG) hydrolase enzyme. The phage ST79 endolysin gene identified as peptidase M15A was cloned, expressed and purified to evaluate its potential to lyse pathogenic bacteria. The molecular size of the purified enzyme is approximately 18 kDa and the in silico study cited here indicated the presence of a zinc-binding domain predicted to be a member of the subfamily A of a metallopeptidase. Its activity, however, was reduced by the presence of Zn²⁺. When Escherichia coli PG was used as a substrate and subjected to digestion for 5 min with 3 μg/ml of enzyme, the peptidase M15A showed 2 times higher in lysis efficiency when compared to the commercial lysozyme. The enzyme works in a broad alkaligenic pH range of 7.5–9.0 and temperatures from 25 to 42 °C. The enzyme was able to lyse 18 Gram-negative bacteria in which the outer membrane was permeabilized by chloroform treatment. Interestingly, it also lysed Enterococcus sp., but not other Gram-positive bacteria. In general, endolysin cannot lyse Gram-negative bacteria from outside, however, the cationic amphipathic C-terminal in some endolysins showed permeability to Gram-negative outer membranes. Genetically engineered ST79 peptidase M15A that showed a broad spectrum against Gram-negative bacterial PG or, in combination with an antibiotic the same way as combined drug methodology, could facilitate an effective treatment of severe or antibiotic resistant cases.

Identification of the Burkholderia pseudomallei bacteriophage ST79 lysis gene cassette

AIMS

To identify and characterize the lysis gene cassette from the bacteriophage ST79 that lyses Burkholderia pseudomallei.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Approximately 1·5 kb of ST79 lysis genes were identified from the phage genome data. It was composed of holin, peptidase M15A or endolysin, lysB and lysC. Each gene and its combinations were cloned into Escherichia coli and the lytic effects were measured. Co-expression of holin and peptidase M15A showed the highest lysis activity. Expression of holin, lysB/C or holin-peptidase M15A-lysB/lysC lysed the E. coli membrane, whereas peptidase M15A alone did not. The predicted transmembrane structures of holin and lysB/C indicated that they could be inserted into the bacterial membrane to form pores, affecting cell permeability and causing lysis.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report of an investigation into the lysis genes of B. pseudomallei's lytic phage using E. coli as a model.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Burkholderia pseudomallei, a Gram-negative bacterium causing an infectious disease, is intrinsically resistant to several antibiotics, and a vaccine is not available. The lysis genes of ST79, the first reported lytic bacteriophage of B. pseudomallei, were characterized. The development of ST79 as an alternative treatment for skin ulceration, for example, or to be used as a gene cloning tool for B. pseudomallei may be possible with this knowledge.

A PCR-BASED DETECTION OF BURKHOLDERIA PSEUDOMALLEI DIVERSITY USING MYOVIRIDAE PROPHAGE TYPING

PCR-based detection of Myoviridae lysogenic phages in Burkholderia pseudomallei was developed using primers targeting K96243 prophage GI2, phiE12-2 and phi52237/phiX216. Investigation of 50 clinical and 50 environmental (soil) isolates revealed that K96243 prophage GI2 was the most common (48%) among the isolates, followed by phiE12-2 (38%) and phi52237/phiX216 (35%), with K96243 prophage GI2 being significantly more frequent in soil (64%) than clinical (32%) samples. Twenty-four percent of soil isolates contained all three prophage types, while clinical isolates harbored no more than two types. Although B. pseudomallei isolates from soil were found to be more diverse based on prophage typing, all isolates were equally susceptible to a battery of lytic phages (although to different extents), suggesting the possibility of using lytic phages to control environmental B. pseudomallei.

LYTIC CAPABILITY OF BACTERIOPHAGES (FAMILY MYOVIRIDAE) ON BURKHOLDERIA PSEUDOMALLEI

Burkholderia pseudomallei, a gram-negative bacillus found in soil and water, is the causative agent of melioidosis. It can produce a biofilm, which increases resistance to antibacterial agents. Bacteriophages (phages) have been suggested as alternative antibacterial agents. In this study, the ability of six phages (family Myoviridae) to lyse B. pseudomallei isolates was examined using a microplate phage virulence assay. The six phages were more efficient in lysing soil than clinical B. pseudomallei isolates. Phage ST79 had the highest lytic capability, independent of inoculating phage quantity with a 4-log reduction of bacterial numbers after a 4 hour treatment. Three modified derivatives of ST79 were developed by multiple passages on phage-resistant B. pseudomallei isolates, leading to an increase in lytic capability from 62% to 80%. Phage ST79 at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10 significantly reduces biofilm formation determined by a colorimetric method. The recovery of B. pseudomallei growth following phage treatment needs to be overcome if these lytic phages are to be used as biocontrol agents of B. pseudomallei in the environment.

Novel lytic bacteriophages from soil that lyse Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a Gram-negative saprophytic bacterium that causes severe sepsis with a high mortality rate in humans and a vaccine is not available. Bacteriophages are viruses of bacteria that are ubiquitous in nature. Several lysogenic phages of Burkholderia spp. have been found but information is scarce for lytic phages. Six phages, ST2, ST7, ST70, ST79, ST88 and ST96, which lyse B. pseudomallei, were isolated from soil in an endemic area. The phages belong to the Myoviridae family. The range of estimated genome sizes is 24.0-54.6 kb. Phages ST79 and ST96 lysed 71% and 67% of tested B. pseudomallei isolates and formed plaques on Burkholderia mallei but not other tested bacteria, with the exception of closely related Burkholderia thailandensis which was lysed by ST2 and ST96 only. ST79 and ST96 were observed to clear a mid-log culture by lysis within 6 h when infected at a multiplicity of infection of 0.1. As ST79 and ST96 phages effectively lysed B. pseudomallei, their potential use as a biocontrol of B. pseudomallei in the environment or alternative treatment in infected hosts could lead to benefits from phages that are available in nature.