Cometary science. The organic-rich surface of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko as seen by VIRTIS/Rosetta

The VIRTIS (Visible, Infrared and Thermal Imaging Spectrometer) instrument on board the Rosetta spacecraft has provided evidence of carbon-bearing compounds on the nucleus of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. The very low reflectance of the nucleus (normal albedo of 0.060 ± 0.003 at 0.55 micrometers), the spectral slopes in visible and infrared ranges (5 to 25 and 1.5 to 5% kÅ(-1)), and the broad absorption feature in the 2.9-to-3.6-micrometer range present across the entire illuminated surface are compatible with opaque minerals associated with nonvolatile organic macromolecular materials: a complex mixture of various types of carbon-hydrogen and/or oxygen-hydrogen chemical groups, with little contribution of nitrogen-hydrogen groups. In active areas, the changes in spectral slope and absorption feature width may suggest small amounts of water-ice. However, no ice-rich patches are observed, indicating a generally dehydrated nature for the surface currently illuminated by the Sun.

Surface composition of Hyperion

Hyperion, Saturn's eighth largest icy satellite, is a body of irregular shape in a state of chaotic rotation. The surface is segregated into two distinct units. A spatially dominant high-albedo unit having the strong signature of H2O ice contrasts with a unit that is about a factor of four lower in albedo and is found mostly in the bottoms of cup-like craters. Here we report observations of Hyperion's surface in the ultraviolet and near-infrared spectral regions with two optical remote sensing instruments on the Cassini spacecraft at closest approach during a fly-by on 25-26 September 2005. The close fly-by afforded us the opportunity to obtain separate reflectance spectra of the high- and low-albedo surface components. The low-albedo material has spectral similarities and compositional signatures that link it with the surface of Phoebe and a hemisphere-wide superficial coating on Iapetus.

The evolution of Titan's mid-latitude clouds

Spectra from Cassini's Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer reveal that the horizontal structure, height, and optical depth of Titan's clouds are highly dynamic. Vigorous cloud centers are seen to rise from the middle to the upper troposphere within 30 minutes and dissipate within the next hour. Their development indicates that Titan's clouds evolve convectively; dissipate through rain; and, over the next several hours, waft downwind to achieve their great longitude extents. These and other characteristics suggest that temperate clouds originate from circulation-induced convergence, in addition to a forcing at the surface associated with Saturn's tides, geology, and/or surface composition.

Compositional maps of Saturn's moon Phoebe from imaging spectroscopy

The origin of Phoebe, which is the outermost large satellite of Saturn, is of particular interest because its inclined, retrograde orbit suggests that it was gravitationally captured by Saturn, having accreted outside the region of the solar nebula in which Saturn formed. By contrast, Saturn's regular satellites (with prograde, low-inclination, circular orbits) probably accreted within the sub-nebula in which Saturn itself formed. Here we report imaging spectroscopy of Phoebe resulting from the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft encounter on 11 June 2004. We mapped ferrous-iron-bearing minerals, bound water, trapped CO2, probable phyllosilicates, organics, nitriles and cyanide compounds. Detection of these compounds on Phoebe makes it one of the most compositionally diverse objects yet observed in our Solar System. It is likely that Phoebe's surface contains primitive materials from the outer Solar System, indicating a surface of cometary origin.

Carbon and silicate grains in the laboratory as analogues of cosmic dust

Carbon and silicate grains are the two main components of cosmic dust. There is increasing spectroscopic evidence that their composition varies according to the cosmic environment and the experienced processing. Irradiation from ultraviolet photons and cosmic rays, as well as chemical interactions with the interstellar gas play a crucial role for grain transformation. The study of 'laboratory analogues' represents a powerful tool to better understand the nature and evolution of cosmic materials. In particular, simulations of grain processing are fundamental to outline an evolutionary pathway for interstellar particles. In the present work, we discuss the ultraviolet and infrared spectral changes induced by thermal annealing, ultraviolet irradiation, ion irradiation and hydrogen atom bombardment in carbon and silicate analogue materials. The laboratory results give the opportunity to shed light on the long-standing problems of the attribution of ultraviolet and infrared interstellar spectral features.

LC determination of indinavir in biological matrices with electrochemical detection

A high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method with electrochemical detection for the quantification of Indinavir in cell culture is described. The sample pre-treatment involved a protein precipitation procedure using acetonitrile. Chromatography was carried out on a base-deactivated reversed-phase column with an isocratic mobile phase. The method was validated with regard to specificity, linearity, limits of detection and quantitation, precision and accuracy, recovery and ruggedness. The proposed HPLC assay was utilised to directly evaluate the capability of P-glycoprotein expressing multidrug resistant cells in mediating the transport and efflux of protease inhibitor (PI) Indinavir, a basic compound in AIDS care.

Carbonaceous grain processing in space and in the laboratory

Laboratory simulations of carbonaceous grain processing which occurs in space are fundamental to outline an evolutionary pathway for these particles. We consider the UV spectral changes induced in hydrogenated carbon grains by thermal annealing, UV irradiation and ion bombardment. The results give the opportunity to interpret observations in different space environments. In particular, modelling of the optical properties, based on a description of the electronic structure of carbons, indicates small hydrogenated amorphous carbon grains, with different degrees of UV irradiation, as the carrier of the ubiquitous UV interstellar extinction bump.

Cosmic dust analog simulation in a microgravity environment: the STARDUST program

We have undertaken a project called STARDUST which is a collaboration with Italian and American investigators. The goals of this program are to study the condensation and coagulation of refractory materials from the vapor and to study the properties of the resulting grains as analogs to cosmic dust particles. To reduce thermal convective currents and to develop valuable experience in designing an experiment for the Gas-Grain Simulation Facility aboard Space Station Freedom we have built and flown a new chamber to study these processes under periods of microgravity available on NASA's KC-135 Research Aircraft. Preliminary results from flights with magnesium and zinc are discussed.

An overview of the cosmic dust analogue material production in reduced gravity: the STARDUST experience

The formation, properties and chemical dynamics of microparticles are important in a wide variety of technical and scientific fields including synthesis of semiconductor crystals from the vapour, heterogeneous chemistry in the stratosphere and the formation of cosmic dust surrounding the stars. Gravitational effects on particle formation from vapors include gas convection and buoyancy and particle sedimentation. These processes can be significantly reduced by studying condensation and agglomeration of particles in microgravity. In addition, to accurately simulate particle formation near stars, which takes place under low gravity conditions, studies in microgravity are desired. We report here the STARDUST experience, a recent collaborative effort that brings together a successful American program of microgravity experiments on particle formation aboard NASA KC-135 Reduced Gravity Research Aircraft and several Italian research groups with expertise in microgravity research and astrophysical dust formation. The program goal is to study the formation and properties of high temperature particles and gases that are of interest in astrophysics and planetary science. To do so we are developing techniques that are generally applicable to study particle formation and properties, taking advantage of the microgravity environment to allow accurate control of system parameters.

Carbonaceous materials in cometary environments: the case of the 3-4 micrometers bands

We present in this paper a simulation of cometary spectra between 3 and 4 micrometers performed by using the optical properties of various carbon-based materials measured at different temperatures in the range 300-520 K. In our computations we have used new laboratory data obtained for hydrogenated amorphous carbon (HAC) grains and three kinds of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). All these materials show significant features in the near IR region; however, only the synthetic spectra obtained from HAC grains show a satisfactory agreement with the profile of the cometary bands.