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Ribette T, Charretier Y, Laurent S, Syntin P, Chautard E, Meniche X, Darnaud M, Bequet F, Beloeil L, Piras-Douce F, Abi-Ghanem J. Development of Mass Spectrometry Imaging on skeletal muscle to characterize the local pro-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid responses in a vaccination context. J Proteomics 2024; 296:105105. [PMID: 38325731 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2024.105105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Vaccine reactogenicity is well documented at the clinical level but the mechanism involved at the local or systemic level are still poorly understood. Muscular tissue where most vaccines are administered is the first place of interaction between the vaccine formulation and the host's immune cells. So far, this site of vaccine administration is not well documented from a mechanistic standpoint. The study of early molecular events at the injection site is crucial to understand the local response to vaccines. In this paper, we report a standardized workflow, from the injection of vaccine formulations in rabbit muscle, to the analysis by desorption electrospray ionization and histology staining to understand the role of lipids involved in the inflammation and its resolution on striated muscular tissue. The analysis of lipid mediators was optimized at the site of needle insertion to allow the spatial comparison of cellular infiltrates at the injection site. We showed that lipids were distributed across the spatial tissue morphology in a time-dependent manner. The MS imaging applied to vaccinology could pave the way to a better understanding of vaccine reactogenicity and mechanism of action.
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Charretier Y, Lazarevic V, Schrenzel J, Ruppé E. Messages from the Fourth International Conference on Clinical Metagenomics. Microbes Infect 2020; 22:635-641. [PMID: 32828958 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2020.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Charretier
- Laboratoire de Recherche Génomique, Centre Médical Universitaire, 1 Rue Michel Servet, Genève 4 1211, Switzerland.
| | - Vladimir Lazarevic
- Laboratoire de Recherche Génomique, Centre Médical Universitaire, 1 Rue Michel Servet, Genève 4 1211, Switzerland
| | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Laboratoire de Recherche Génomique, Centre Médical Universitaire, 1 Rue Michel Servet, Genève 4 1211, Switzerland; Laboratoire de Bactériologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Genève, 4 Rue Gabrielle-Perret-Gentil, Geneva 14 1211, Switzerland
| | - Etienne Ruppé
- AP-HP, Hôpital Bichat - Claude Bernard, Laboratoire de Bactériologie, INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, France; Université Paris Diderot, IAME, UMR 1137, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 46 Rue Henri-Huchard, Paris, 75018, France
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3
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Dorsaz S, Charretier Y, Girard M, Gaïa N, Leo S, Schrenzel J, Harbarth S, Huttner B, Lazarevic V. Changes in Microbiota Profiles After Prolonged Frozen Storage of Stool Suspensions. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:77. [PMID: 32185143 PMCID: PMC7058979 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is recommended as safe and effective treatment for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infections. Freezing the FMT preparation simplifies the process, allowing a single stool sample to be used for multiple receivers and over an extended period of time. We aimed to assess the effect of long-term frozen storage on bacterial taxonomic profiles of a stool suspension prepared for FMT. Methods: DNA was extracted from a stool suspension before freezing and sequentially during the 18-month storage period at -80°C. Two different protocols were used for DNA extraction. The first relied on a classical mechanical and chemical cell disruption to extract both intra- and extracellular DNA; the second included specific pre-treatments aimed at removing free DNA and DNA from human and damaged bacterial cells. Taxonomic profiling of bacterial communities was performed by sequencing of V3-V4 16S rRNA gene amplicons. Results: Microbiota profiles obtained by whole DNA extraction procedure remained relatively stable during frozen storage. When DNA extraction procedure included specific pre-treatments, microbiota similarity between fresh and frozen samples progressively decreased with longer frozen storage times; notably, the abundance of Bacteroidetes decreased in a storage duration-dependent manner. The abundance of Firmicutes, the main butyrate producers in the colon, were not much affected by frozen storage for up to 1 year. Conclusion: Our data show that metataxonomic analysis of frozen stool suspensions subjected to specific pre-treatments prior to DNA extractions might provide an interesting indication of bacterial resistance to stress conditions and thus of chances of survival in FMT recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Dorsaz
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yannick Charretier
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Myriam Girard
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nadia Gaïa
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stefano Leo
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland.,Bacteriology Laboratory, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Diagnostics, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Harbarth
- Infection Control Program, Division of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Benedikt Huttner
- Infection Control Program, Division of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Vladimir Lazarevic
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
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Cherkaoui A, Renzi G, Charretier Y, Blanc DS, Vuilleumier N, Schrenzel J. Automated Incubation and Digital Image Analysis of Chromogenic Media Using Copan WASPLab Enables Rapid Detection of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:379. [PMID: 31781516 PMCID: PMC6851235 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: The aim of the present study was to assess whether the WASPLab automation enables faster detection of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) on chromogenic VRE-specific plates by shortening the incubation time. Methods: Ninety different VRE culture negative rectal ESwab specimens were spiked with various concentrations (ranging from 3 × 102 to 3 × 107 CFU/ml) of 10 Enterococcus faecium strains (vancomycin MICs ranging from 32 to >256 mg/l), 3 E. faecium VanB strains (vancomycin MICs: 4, 8, and 16 mg/l), and 2 E. faecium VanB strains displaying vancomycin heteroresistance (vancomycin MICs: 64 and 96 mg/l). Results: Besides the two strains exhibiting vancomycin heteroresistance, all the other 13 VRE strains included in this study were detected as early as 24 h on the WASPLab even if the inoculum was low (3 × 103 CFU/ml). When the vancomycin MICs were high, all strains were detected as early as at 18 h. However, 30 h was a conservative time point for finalizing the analysis of chromogenic cultures. Conclusion: These results suggested that the WASPLab automated incubation could allow decreasing the initial incubation time to 18 h, followed by an intermediate time at 24 h and a final incubation period of 30 h for VRE culture screening, to deliver rapid results without affecting the analytical sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdessalam Cherkaoui
- Bacteriology Laboratory, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Diagnostics, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gesuele Renzi
- Bacteriology Laboratory, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Diagnostics, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yannick Charretier
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique S Blanc
- Service of Hospital Preventive Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss National Reference Center for Emerging Antibiotic Resistance (NARA), Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Vuilleumier
- Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Diagnostics, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.,Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Bacteriology Laboratory, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Diagnostics, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.,Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
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5
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Kolb M, Lazarevic V, Emonet S, Calmy A, Girard M, Gaïa N, Charretier Y, Cherkaoui A, Keller P, Huber C, Schrenzel J. Next-Generation Sequencing for the Diagnosis of Challenging Culture-Negative Endocarditis. Front Med (Lausanne) 2019; 6:203. [PMID: 31616669 PMCID: PMC6763761 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2019.00203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diagnosis of culture-negative infective endocarditis usually implies indirect pathogen identification by serologic or molecular techniques. Clinical metagenomics, relying on next-generation sequencing (NGS) is an emerging approach that allows pathogen identification in challenging situations, as evidenced by a clinical case. We sequenced the DNA extracted from the surgically-removed frozen valve tissue from a patient with suspected infective endocarditis with negative blood and valve cultures. Mapping of the sequence reads against reference genomic sequences, a 16S rRNA gene database and clade-specific marker genes suggested an infection caused by Cardiobacterium hominis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon Kolb
- Service of General Internal Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals (HUG), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Vladimir Lazarevic
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane Emonet
- Bacteriology Laboratory, Service of Laboratory Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.,Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Calmy
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Myriam Girard
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nadia Gaïa
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yannick Charretier
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Abdessalam Cherkaoui
- Bacteriology Laboratory, Service of Laboratory Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Peter Keller
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Huber
- Service of Cardiovascular Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.,Bacteriology Laboratory, Service of Laboratory Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.,Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
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Genton L, Mareschal J, Charretier Y, Lazarevic V, Bindels LB, Schrenzel J. Targeting the Gut Microbiota to Treat Cachexia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:305. [PMID: 31572686 PMCID: PMC6751326 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cachexia occurs in many chronic diseases and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. It is treated by nutritional support but often with limited effectiveness, leading to the search of other therapeutic strategies. The modulation of gut microbiota, whether through pro-, pre-, syn- or antibiotics or fecal transplantation, is attracting ever-growing interest in the field of obesity, but could also be an interesting and innovative alternative for treating cachexia. This article reviews the evidence linking the features of malnutrition, as defined by the Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition [low body mass index (BMI), unintentional body weight loss, low muscle mass, low appetite, and systemic inflammation] and the gut microbiota in human adults with cachexia-associated diseases, and shows the limitations of the present research in that field with suggestions for future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Genton
- Clinical Nutrition, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Julie Mareschal
- Clinical Nutrition, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yannick Charretier
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Vladimir Lazarevic
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Laure B Bindels
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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7
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Cecchini T, Yoon EJ, Charretier Y, Bardet C, Beaulieu C, Lacoux X, Docquier JD, Lemoine J, Courvalin P, Grillot-Courvalin C, Charrier JP. Deciphering Multifactorial Resistance Phenotypes in Acinetobacter baumannii by Genomics and Targeted Label-free Proteomics. Mol Cell Proteomics 2017; 17:442-456. [PMID: 29259044 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra117.000107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance to β-lactams in Acinetobacter baumannii involves various mechanisms. To decipher them, whole genome sequencing (WGS) and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) were complemented by mass spectrometry (MS) in selected reaction monitoring mode (SRM) in 39 clinical isolates. The targeted label-free proteomic approach enabled, in one hour and using a single method, the quantitative detection of 16 proteins associated with antibiotic resistance: eight acquired β-lactamases (i.e. GES, NDM-1, OXA-23, OXA-24, OXA-58, PER, TEM-1, and VEB), two resident β-lactamases (i.e. ADC and OXA-51-like) and six components of the two major efflux systems (i.e. AdeABC and AdeIJK). Results were normalized using "bacterial quantotypic peptides," i.e. peptide markers of the bacterial quantity, to obtain precise protein quantitation (on average 8.93% coefficient of variation for three biological replicates). This allowed to correlate the levels of resistance to β-lactam with those of the production of acquired as well as resident β-lactamases or of efflux systems. SRM detected enhanced ADC or OXA-51-like production and absence or increased efflux pump production. Precise protein quantitation was particularly valuable to detect resistance mechanisms mediated by regulated genes or by overexpression of chromosomal genes. Combination of WGS and MS, two orthogonal and complementary techniques, allows thereby interpretation of the resistance phenotypes at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiphaine Cecchini
- From the ‡Technology Research Department, Innovation Unit, bioMérieux SA, Marcy l'Etoile, France.,§UMR 5280, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, Université de Lyon, Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Eun-Jeong Yoon
- ¶Institut Pasteur, Unité des Agents Antibactériens, Paris, France
| | - Yannick Charretier
- From the ‡Technology Research Department, Innovation Unit, bioMérieux SA, Marcy l'Etoile, France.,§UMR 5280, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, Université de Lyon, Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Chloé Bardet
- From the ‡Technology Research Department, Innovation Unit, bioMérieux SA, Marcy l'Etoile, France.,§UMR 5280, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, Université de Lyon, Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Corinne Beaulieu
- From the ‡Technology Research Department, Innovation Unit, bioMérieux SA, Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - Xavier Lacoux
- ‖R&D ImmunoAssays, bioMérieux SA, Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | | | - Jerome Lemoine
- §UMR 5280, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, Université de Lyon, Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | | | | | - Jean-Philippe Charrier
- From the ‡Technology Research Department, Innovation Unit, bioMérieux SA, Marcy l'Etoile, France;
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8
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Charretier Y, Schrenzel J. Mass spectrometry methods for predicting antibiotic resistance. Proteomics Clin Appl 2016; 10:964-981. [PMID: 27312049 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201600041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Developing elaborate techniques for clinical applications can be a complicated process. Whole-cell MALDI-TOF MS revolutionized reliable microorganism identification in clinical microbiology laboratories and is now replacing phenotypic microbial identification. This technique is a generic, accurate, rapid, and cost-effective growth-based method. Antibiotic resistance keeps emerging in environmental and clinical microorganisms, leading to clinical therapeutic challenges, especially for Gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing is used to reliably predict antimicrobial success in treating infection, but it is inherently limited by the need to isolate and grow cultures, delaying the application of appropriate therapies. Antibiotic resistance prediction by growth-independent methods is expected to reduce the turnaround time. Recently, the potential of next-generation sequencing and microarrays in predicting microbial resistance has been demonstrated, and this review evaluates the potential of MS in this field. First, technological advances are described, and the possibility of predicting antibiotic resistance by MS is then illustrated for three prototypical human pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clearly, MS methods can identify antimicrobial resistance mediated by horizontal gene transfers or by mutations that affect the quantity of a gene product, whereas antimicrobial resistance mediated by target mutations remains difficult to detect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Charretier
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals.
| | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals
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9
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Charretier Y, Köhler T, Cecchini T, Bardet C, Cherkaoui A, Llanes C, Bogaerts P, Chatellier S, Charrier JP, Schrenzel J. Label-free SRM-based relative quantification of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:81. [PMID: 25713571 PMCID: PMC4322712 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Both acquired and intrinsic mechanisms play a crucial role in Pseudomonas aeruginosa antibiotic resistance. Many clinically relevant resistance mechanisms result from changes in gene expression, namely multidrug efflux pump overproduction, AmpC β-lactamase induction or derepression, and inactivation or repression of the carbapenem-specific porin OprD. Changes in gene expression are usually assessed using reverse-transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) assays. Here, we evaluated label-free Selected Reaction Monitoring (SRM)-based mass spectrometry to directly quantify proteins involved in antibiotic resistance. We evaluated the label-free SRM using a defined set of P. aeruginosa isolates with known resistance mechanisms and compared it with RT-qPCR. Referring to efflux systems, we found a more robust relative quantification of antibiotic resistance mechanisms by SRM than RT-qPCR. The SRM-based approach was applied to a set of clinical P. aeruginosa isolates to detect antibiotic resistance proteins. This multiplexed SRM-based approach is a rapid and reliable method for the simultaneous detection and quantification of resistance mechanisms and we demonstrate its relevance for antibiotic resistance prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Charretier
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Thilo Köhler
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Tiphaine Cecchini
- Institute for Analytical Sciences, Joint Research Unit 5280 CNRS/Lyon 1 University Villeurbanne, France ; Technology Research Department, BioMérieux SA Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - Chloé Bardet
- UMR1092 INSERM, Limoges University Limoges, France ; MD3, BioMérieux SA Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - Abdessalam Cherkaoui
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Department of Genetic and Laboratory Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Catherine Llanes
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie, EA4266, Université de Franche-Comté Besançon, France
| | - Pierre Bogaerts
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, CHU Dinant-Godinne UCL Namur Yvoir, Belgique
| | | | | | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Service of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals Geneva, Switzerland ; Laboratory of Bacteriology, Department of Genetic and Laboratory Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals Geneva, Switzerland
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