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Mei Y, Zhu Y, Yong KSM, Hanafi ZB, Gong H, Liu Y, Teo HY, Hussain M, Song Y, Chen Q, Liu H. IL-37 dampens immunosuppressive functions of MDSCs via metabolic reprogramming in the tumor microenvironment. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113835. [PMID: 38412100 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.113835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-37 (IL-37) has been shown to inhibit tumor growth in various cancer types. However, the immune regulatory function of IL-37 in the tumor microenvironment is unclear. Here, we established a human leukocyte antigen-I (HLA-I)-matched humanized patient-derived xenograft hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) model and three murine orthotopic HCC models to study the function of IL-37 in the tumor microenvironment. We found that IL-37 inhibited HCC growth and promoted T cell activation. Further study revealed that IL-37 impaired the immunosuppressive capacity of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Pretreatment of MDSCs with IL-37 before adoptive transfer attenuated their tumor-promoting function in HCC tumor-bearing mice. Moreover, IL-37 promoted both glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation in MDSCs, resulting in the upregulation of ATP release, which impaired the immunosuppressive capacity of MDSCs. Collectively, we demonstrated that IL-37 inhibited tumor development through dampening MDSCs' immunosuppressive capacity in the tumor microenvironment via metabolic reprogramming, making it a promising target for future cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Mei
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Ying Zhu
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Kylie Su Mei Yong
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (ASTAR), Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Zuhairah Binte Hanafi
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Huanle Gong
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, P.R. China
| | - Yonghao Liu
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Huey Yee Teo
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Muslima Hussain
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Yuan Song
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Qingfeng Chen
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (ASTAR), Singapore 138673, Singapore.
| | - Haiyan Liu
- Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, Immunology Translational Research Program, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore.
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2
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Zhu Y, Mei Y, Baby N, Teo HY, Binte Hanafi Z, Mohd Salleh SN, Sajikumar S, Liu H. Tumor-mediated microbiota alteration impairs synaptic tagging/capture in the hippocampal CA1 area via IL-1β production. Commun Biol 2023; 6:685. [PMID: 37400621 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer patients often experience impairments in cognitive function. However, the evidence for tumor-mediated neurological impairment and detailed mechanisms are still lacking. Gut microbiota has been demonstrated to be involved in the immune system homeostasis and brain functions. Here we find that hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) growth alters the gut microbiota and impedes the cognitive functions. The synaptic tagging and capture (STC), an associative cellular mechanism for the formation of associative memory, is impaired in the tumor-bearing mice. STC expression is rescued after microbiota sterilization. Transplantation of microbiota from HCC tumor-bearing mice induces similar STC impairment in wide type mice. Mechanistic study reveals that HCC growth significantly elevates the serum and hippocampus IL-1β levels. IL-1β depletion in the HCC tumor-bearing mice restores the STC. Taken together, these results demonstrate that gut microbiota plays a crucial role in mediating the tumor-induced impairment of the cognitive function via upregulating IL-1β production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhu
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Yu Mei
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Nimmi Baby
- Department of Physiology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Huey Yee Teo
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Zuhairah Binte Hanafi
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Siti Nazihah Mohd Salleh
- Human Monoclonal Antibody Platform, Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, 138648, Singapore
| | - Sreedharan Sajikumar
- Department of Physiology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore.
- Life Sciences Institute Neurobiology Programme, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore.
- Healthy Longevity Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore.
| | - Haiyan Liu
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore.
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Teo HY, Song Y, Yong KSM, Liu Y, Mei Y, Hanafi ZB, Zhu Y, Chua YL, Gascoigne NRJ, Chen Q, Liu H. IL12/18/21 pre-activation enhances the anti-tumor efficacy of expanded γδT cells and overcomes resistance to anti-PD-L1 treatment. Cancer Immunol Res 2023:726146. [PMID: 37099651 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-21-0952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
γδT cells are promising candidates for cellular immunotherapy due to their immune regulation through cytokine production and MHC-independent direct cytotoxicity against a broad spectrum of tumors. However, current γδT cell-based cancer immunotherapy has limited efficacy, and novel strategies are needed to improve clinical outcomes. Here, we report that cytokine pre-treatment with IL12/18, IL12/15/18, IL12/18/21, and IL12/15/18/21 effectively enhanced the activation and cytotoxicity of in vitro-expanded murine and human γδT cells. However, only adoptive transfer of IL12/18/21 pre-activated γδT cells significantly inhibited tumor growth in a murine melanoma model and a hepatocellular carcinoma model. Both IL12/18/21 pre-activated antibody-expanded and zoledronate-expanded human γδT cells effectively controlled tumor growth in a humanized mouse model. IL12/18/21 pre-activation promoted γδT cell proliferation and cytokine production in vivo and enhanced IFNγ production and activation of endogenous CD8+ T cells in a cell-cell contact- and ICAM-1-dependent manner. Furthermore, the adoptive transfer of IL12/18/21 pre-activated γδT cells could overcome the resistance to anti-PD-L1 therapy, and the combination therapy had a synergistic effect on the therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, the enhanced anti-tumor function of adoptively transferred IL12/18/21 pre-activated γδT cells was largely diminished in the absence of endogenous CD8+ T cells when administered alone or in combination with anti-PD-L1, suggesting a CD8+ T cell-dependent mechanism. Taken together, IL12/18/21 pre-activation can promote γδT cell anti-tumor function and overcome the resistance to checkpoint blockade therapy, indicating an effective combinational cancer immunotherapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huey Yee Teo
- National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yuan Song
- National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Yonghao Liu
- National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yu Mei
- National University of Signapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Ying Zhu
- National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | | | - Qingfeng Chen
- Institute for Molecular and Cellular Biology, A*STAR, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Haiyan Liu
- National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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4
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Lin D, Mei Y, Lei L, Binte Hanafi Z, Jin Z, Liu Y, Song Y, Zhang Y, Hu B, Liu C, Lu J, Liu H. Immune suppressive function of IL-1α release in the tumor microenvironment regulated by calpain 1. Oncoimmunology 2022; 11:2088467. [PMID: 35756844 PMCID: PMC9225674 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2022.2088467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-1α (IL-1α) plays an important role in inflammation and hematopoiesis. Many tumors have increased IL-1α expression. However, the immune regulatory role of secreted IL-1α in tumor development and whether it can be targeted for cancer therapy are still unclear. Here, we found that tumoral-secreted IL-1α significantly promoted hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development in vivo. Tumoral-released IL-1α were found to inhibit T and NK cell activation, and the killing capacity of CD8+ T cells. Moreover, MDSCs were dramatically increased by tumoral-released IL-1α in both spleens and tumors. Indeed, higher tumoral IL-1α expression is associated with increased tumoral infiltration of MDSCs in HCC patients. Further studies showed that tumoral-released IL-1α promoted MDSC recruitment to the tumor microenvironment through a CXCR2-dependent mechanism. Depletion of MDSCs could diminish the tumor-promoting effect of tumoral-released IL-1α. On the contrary, systemic administration of recombinant IL-1α protein significantly inhibited tumor development by activating T cells. In fact, IL-1α protein could promote T cell activation and enhance the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells in vitro. Thus, our study demonstrated that tumoral-released IL-1α promoted tumor development through recruiting MDSCs to inhibit T cell activation, while systemic IL-1α directly promoted anti-tumor T cell responses. We further identified calpain 1 as the major intracellular protease mediating tumoral IL-1α secretion. Calpain 1 KO tumors had diminished IL-1α release and reduced tumor development. Thus, our findings provide new insights into the functions of secreted IL-1α in tumor immunity and its implications for immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Lin
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yu Mei
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lei Lei
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou, P. R. China
| | - Zuhairah Binte Hanafi
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou, P. R. China.,Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ziqi Jin
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yonghao Liu
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yuan Song
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yinsheng Zhang
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou, P. R. China
| | - Bo Hu
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou, P. R. China
| | - Chunliang Liu
- Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou, P. R. China
| | - Jinhua Lu
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Haiyan Liu
- Immunology Translational Research Programme, Department of Microbiology of Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Chiu JW, Binte Hanafi Z, Chew LCY, Mei Y, Liu H. IL-1α Processing, Signaling and Its Role in Cancer Progression. Cells 2021; 10:cells10010092. [PMID: 33430381 PMCID: PMC7827341 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-1α (IL-1α) is a major alarmin cytokine which triggers and boosts the inflammatory responses. Since its discovery in the 1940s, the structure and bioactivity of IL-1α has been extensively studied and emerged as a vital regulator in inflammation and hematopoiesis. IL-1α is translated as a pro-form with minor bioactivity. The pro-IL-1α can be cleaved by several proteases to generate the N terminal and C terminal form of IL-1α. The C terminal form of IL-1α (mature form) has several folds higher bioactivity compared with its pro-form. IL-1α is a unique cytokine which could localize in the cytosol, membrane, nucleus, as well as being secreted out of the cell. However, the processing mechanism and physiological significance of these differentially localized IL-1α are still largely unknown. Accumulating evidence suggests IL-1α is involved in cancer pathogenesis. The role of IL-1α in cancer development is controversial as it exerts both pro- and anti-tumor roles in different cancer types. Here, we review the recent development in the processing and signaling of IL-1α and summarize the functions of IL-1α in cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yu Mei
- Correspondence: (Y.M.); (H.L.); Tel.: +65-90878606 (Y.M.); +65-65166661 (H.L.); Fax: +65-67782684 (H.L.)
| | - Haiyan Liu
- Correspondence: (Y.M.); (H.L.); Tel.: +65-90878606 (Y.M.); +65-65166661 (H.L.); Fax: +65-67782684 (H.L.)
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6
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Song Y, Liu Y, Teo HY, Hanafi ZB, Mei Y, Zhu Y, Chua YL, Lv M, Jiang Z, Liu H. Manganese enhances the antitumor function of CD8 + T cells by inducing type I interferon production. Cell Mol Immunol 2020; 18:1571-1574. [PMID: 32801367 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-020-00524-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Song
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Yonghao Liu
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Huey Yee Teo
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Zuhairah Binte Hanafi
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Yu Mei
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Ying Zhu
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Yen Leong Chua
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Mengze Lv
- Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.,Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (JRI), Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Zhengfan Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Haiyan Liu
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore.
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Mei Y, Zhu Y, Teo HY, Liu Y, Song Y, Lim HY, Binte Hanafi Z, Angeli V, Liu H. The indirect antiangiogenic effect of IL-37 in the tumor microenvironment. J Leukoc Biol 2020; 107:783-796. [PMID: 32125036 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3ma0220-207rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
IL-37, a newly identified IL-1 family cytokine, has been shown to play an important role in inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, and carcinogenesis. IL-37 has been suggested to suppress tumoral angiogenesis, whereas some publications showed that IL-37 promoted angiogenesis through TGF-β signaling in both physiologic and pathologic conditions. Therefore, the function of IL-37 in tumoral angiogenesis is not clear and the underlying mechanism is not known. In this current study, we investigated the direct role of IL-37 on endothelial cells, as well as its indirect effect on angiogenesis through functioning on tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo. We found that IL-37 treatment directly promoted HUVEC migration and tubule formation, indicating IL-37 as a proangiogenic factor. Surprisingly, the supernatants from IL-37 overexpressing tumor cell line promoted HUVEC apoptosis and inhibited its migration and tubule formation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that IL-37 suppressed tumor angiogenesis in a murine orthotopic hepatocellular carcinoma model, suggesting its dominant antiangiogenesis role in vivo. Moreover, microarray and qPCR analysis demonstrated that IL-37 reduced the expressions of proangiogenic factors and increased the expressions of antiangiogenic factors by tumor cells. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)2 expression was significantly decreased by IL-37 in both cell lines and murine tumor models. MMP9 and vascular endothelial growth factor expressions were also reduced in murine tumors overexpressing IL-37, as well as in cell lines overexpressing IL-37 under hypoxic conditions. In conclusion, although IL-37 could exert direct proangiogenic effects on endothelial cells, it plays an antiangiogenic role via modulating proangiogenic and antiangiogenic factor expressions by tumor cells in the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Mei
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ying Zhu
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Huey Yee Teo
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yonghao Liu
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yuan Song
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hwee Ying Lim
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zuhairah Binte Hanafi
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Veronique Angeli
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Haiyan Liu
- Immunology Programme, Life Sciences Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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