1
|
Huang YJ, Cheng TL, Wang YT, Chen CS, Leu YL, Chang CS, Ho CH, Chao SW, Li CT, Chuang CH. Exploring the therapeutic potential of DV-B-120 as an inhibitor of dengue virus infection. J Virol 2024; 98:e0125823. [PMID: 38546211 PMCID: PMC11019862 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01258-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Dengue fever, an infectious disease prevalent in subtropical and tropical regions, currently lacks effective small-molecule drugs as treatment. In this study, we used a fluorescence peptide cleavage assay to screen seven compounds to assess their inhibition of the dengue virus (DENV) NS2B-NS3 protease. DV-B-120 demonstrated superior inhibition of NS2B-NS3 protease activity and lower toxicity compared to ARDP0006. The selectivity index of DV-B-120 was higher than that of ARDP0006. In vivo assessments of the antiviral efficacy of DV-B-120 against DENV replication demonstrated delayed mortality of suckling mice treated with the compound, with 60-80% protection against life-threatening effects, compared to the outcomes of DENV-infected mice treated with saline. The lower clinical scores of DENV-infected mice treated with DV-B-120 indicated a reduction in acute-progressive illness symptoms, underscoring the potential therapeutic impact of DV-B-120. Investigations of DV-B-120's ability to restore the antiviral type I IFN response in the brain tissue of DENV-infected ICR suckling mice demonstrated its capacity to stimulate IFN and antiviral IFN-stimulated gene expression. DV-B-120 not only significantly delayed DENV-2-induced mortality and illness symptoms but also reduced viral numbers in the brain, ultimately restoring the innate antiviral response. These findings strongly suggest that DV-B-120 holds promise as a therapeutic agent against DENV infection and highlight its potential contribution in addressing the current lack of effective treatments for this infectious disease.IMPORTANCEThe prevalence of dengue virus (DENV) infection in tropical and subtropical regions is escalating due to factors like climate change and mosquito vector expansion. With over 300 million annual infections and potentially fatal outcomes, the urgent need for effective treatments is evident. While the approved Dengvaxia vaccine has variable efficacy, there are currently no antiviral drugs for DENV. This study explores seven compounds targeting the NS2B-NS3 protease, a crucial protein in DENV replication. These compounds exhibit inhibitory effects on DENV-2 NS2B-NS3, holding promise for disrupting viral replication and preventing severe manifestations. However, further research, including animal testing, is imperative to assess therapeutic efficacy and potential toxicity. Developing safe and potent treatments for DENV infection is critical in addressing the rising global health threat posed by this virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Jung Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Post Baccalaureate Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Post Baccalaureate Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Tseng Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Post Baccalaureate Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Shu Chen
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ling Leu
- Department of Pharmacy, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy & Science, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Shiang Chang
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Drug Development Center, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Han Ho
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shi-Wei Chao
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Tse Li
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hung Chuang
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tsai YC, Kuo MC, Huang JC, Chang WA, Wu LY, Huang YC, Chang CY, Lee SC, Hsu YL. Single-cell transcriptomic profiles in the pathophysiology within the microenvironment of early diabetic kidney disease. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:442. [PMID: 37460555 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-05947-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the leading cause of end-stage kidney disease, resulting in a huge socio-economic impact. Kidney is a highly complex organ and the pathogenesis underlying kidney organization involves complex cell-to-cell interaction within the heterogeneous kidney milieu. Advanced single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) could reveal the complex architecture and interaction with the microenvironment in early DKD. We used scRNA-seq to investigate early changes in the kidney of db/m mice and db/db mice at the 14th week. Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection were applied to classify cells into different clusters at a proper resolution. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis was used to identify the key molecules specifically expressed in kidney tubules. Information of cell-cell communication within the kidney was obtained using receptor-ligand pairing resources. In vitro model, human subjects, and co-detection by indexing staining were used to identify the pathophysiologic role of the hub genes in DKD. Among four distinct subsets of the proximal tubule (PT), lower percentages of proliferative PT and PT containing AQP4 expression (PTAQP4+) in db/db mice induced impaired cell repair activity and dysfunction of renin-angiotensin system modulation in early DKD. We found that ferroptosis was involved in DKD progression, and ceruloplasmin acted as a central regulator of the induction of ferroptosis in PTAQP4+. In addition, lower percentages of thick ascending limbs and collecting ducts with impaired metabolism function were also critical pathogenic features in the kidney of db/db mice. Secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1) mediated pathogenic cross-talk in the tubular microenvironment, as validated by a correlation between urinary SPP1/Cr level and tubular injury. Finally, mesangial cell-derived semaphorin 3C (SEMA3C) further promoted endothelium-mesenchymal transition in glomerular endothelial cells through NRP1 and NRP2, and urinary SEMA3C/Cr level was positively correlated with glomerular injury. These data identified the hub genes involved in pathophysiologic changes within the microenvironment of early DKD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chun Tsai
- School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Division of General Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Division of Nephrology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Center for Liquid Biopsy and Cohort Research, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chuan Kuo
- Division of Nephrology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Juan-Chi Huang
- Division of Nephrology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-An Chang
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Yu Wu
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chi Huang
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chao-Yuan Chang
- Department of Anatomy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Su-Chu Lee
- Division of Nephrology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Ling Hsu
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Nguyen MTT, Shih YC, Lin MH, Roffler SR, Hsiao CY, Cheng TL, Lin WW, Lin EC, Jong YJ, Chang CY, Su YC. Structural determination of an antibody that specifically recognizes polyethylene glycol with a terminal methoxy group. Commun Chem 2022; 5:88. [PMID: 35936993 PMCID: PMC9340711 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-022-00709-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Covalent attachment of methoxy poly(ethylene) glycol (mPEG) to therapeutic molecules is widely employed to improve their systemic circulation time and therapeutic efficacy. mPEG, however, can induce anti-PEG antibodies that negatively impact drug therapeutic effects. However, the underlying mechanism for specific binding of antibodies to mPEG remains unclear. Here, we determined the first co-crystal structure of the humanized 15-2b anti-mPEG antibody in complex with mPEG, which possesses a deep pocket in the antigen-binding site to accommodate the mPEG polymer. Structural and mutational analyses revealed that mPEG binds to h15-2b via Van der Waals and hydrogen bond interactions, whereas the methoxy group of mPEG is stabilized in a hydrophobic environment between the VH:VL interface. Replacement of the heavy chain hydrophobic V37 residue with a neutral polar serine or threonine residue offers additional hydrogen bond interactions with methoxyl and hydroxyl groups, resulting in cross-reactivity to mPEG and OH-PEG. Our findings provide insights into understanding mPEG-binding specificity and antigenicity of anti-mPEG antibodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minh-Tram T. Nguyen
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chien Shih
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Hsuan Lin
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Steve R. Roffler
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chiao-Yu Hsiao
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Wei Lin
- School of Post-Baccalaureate Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - En-Chi Lin
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Yuh-Jyh Jong
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Departments of Pediatrics and Laboratory Medicine, and Translational Research Center of Neuromuscular Diseases, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Yuan Chang
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Cheng Su
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices (IDS²B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ho CJ, Ko HJ, Liao TS, Zheng XR, Chou PH, Wang LT, Lin RW, Chen CH, Wang C. Severe cellular stress activates apoptosis independently of p53 in osteosarcoma. Cell Death Discov 2021; 7:275. [PMID: 34608124 PMCID: PMC8490387 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-021-00658-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis induced by doxorubicin, bortezomib, or paclitaxel, targeting DNA, 26S proteasome, and microtubules respectively, was assessed in two osteosarcoma cells, p53 wild-type U2OS and p53-null MG63 cells. Doxorubicin-induced apoptosis only occurred in U2OS, not in MG63. In contrast, bortezomib and paclitaxel could drive U2OS or MG63 toward apoptosis effectively, suggesting that apoptosis induced by bortezomib or paclitaxel is p53-independent. The expressions of Bcl2 family members such as Bcl2, Bcl-xl, and Puma could be seen in U2OS and MG63 cells with or without doxorubicin, bortezomib, or paclitaxel treatment. In contrast, another member, Bim, only could be observed in U2OS, not in MG63, under the same conditions. Bim knockdown did not affect the doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in U2OS, suggested that a BH3-only protein other than Bim might participate in apoptosis induced by doxorubicin. Using a BH3-mimetic, ABT-263, to inhibit Bcl2 or Bcl-xl produced a limited apoptotic response in U2OS and MG63 cells, suggesting that this BH3-mimetic cannot activate the Bax/Bak pathway efficiently. Significantly, ABT-263 enhanced doxorubicin- and bortezomib-induced apoptosis synergistically in U2OS and MG63 cells. These results implied that the severe cellular stress caused by doxorubicin or bortezomib might be mediated through a dual process to control apoptosis. Respectively, doxorubicin or bortezomib activates a BH3-only protein in one way and corresponding unknown factors in another way to affect mitochondrial outer membrane permeability, resulting in apoptosis. The combination of doxorubicin with ABT-263 could produce synergistic apoptosis in MG63 cells, which lack p53, suggesting that p53 has no role in doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in osteosarcoma. In addition, ABT-263 enhanced paclitaxel to induce moderate levels of apoptosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Jung Ho
- Department of Orthopedics, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Huey-Jiun Ko
- Department of Biochemistry & Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Shao Liao
- Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Xiang-Ren Zheng
- Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Po-Hsu Chou
- Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Li-Ting Wang
- Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Ru-Wei Lin
- Department of Plant Industry, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, 91201, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Hwan Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Chihuei Wang
- Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan.
- Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lin CH, Ju SP, Su JW, Li DE. Peptide Capping Agent Design for Gold (111) Facet by Molecular Simulation and Experimental Approaches. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2090. [PMID: 32034260 PMCID: PMC7005706 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59144-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The stochastic tunneling-basin hopping method (STUN-BH) was utilized to obtain the most stable peptide S7 configuration (Ac-Ser-Ser-Phe-Pro-Gln-Pro-Asn-CONH2) adsorbed on Au(111) facet. After the most stable S7 configuration was found, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was conducted to investigate the thermal stability between S7 and Au facet at 300 K in both vacuum and water environment. Moreover, further design sets of peptide sequences on Au(111) facet were used to compare with S7. All molecular simulations were carried out by the large-scale atomic/molecular massively parallel simulator (LAMMPS). The Amber99sb-ILDN force field was employed for modeling the interatomic interaction of peptides, and the TIP3P water was used for the water environment. The CHARMM-METAL force field was introduced to model the S7, PF8 (Ac-Pro-Phe-Ser-Pro-Phe-Ser-Pro-Phe-CONH2) and FS8 (Ac-Phe-Ser-Phe-Ser-Phe-Ser-Phe-Ser-CONH2) interactions with Au(111). The MD simulation results demonstrate that the morphology of Pro affects the adsorption stability of Phe. Therefore, we designed two sequences, PF8 and FS8, to confirm our simulation result through experiment. The present study also develops a novel low-temperature plasma synthesis method to evaluate the facet selecting performance of the designed peptide sequences of S7, PF8, and FS8. The experimental results suggest that the reduced Au atom seed is captured with the designed peptide sequences and slowing growing under room temperature for 72 hours. The experimental results are in the excellent agreement with the simulation finding that the Pro in the designed peptide sequences plays a critical role in the facet selection for Au atom stacking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Che-Hsin Lin
- Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, 804, Taiwan
| | - Shin-Pon Ju
- Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, 804, Taiwan.
- Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.
| | - Jia-Wei Su
- Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, 804, Taiwan
| | - Dai-En Li
- Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, 804, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Lin CJ, Liu CH, Wang JY, Lin CC, Li YF, Richardson CD, Lin LT. Small molecules targeting coxsackievirus A16 capsid inactivate viral particles and prevent viral binding. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:162. [PMID: 30254193 PMCID: PMC6156566 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0165-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) is an etiologic agent of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) that affects young children, and although typically self-limited, severe complications, and fatal cases have been reported. Due to the lack of specific medication and vaccines against CVA16, there is currently a need to develop effective antivirals to better control CVA16 infections in epidemic areas. In this study, we identified the tannins chebulagic acid (CHLA) and punicalagin (PUG) as small molecules that can efficiently disrupt the CVA16 infection of human rhabdomyosarcoma cells. Both compounds significantly reduced CVA16 infectivity at micromolar concentrations without apparent cytotoxicity. A mechanistic analysis revealed that the tannins particularly targeted the CVA16 entry phase by inactivating cell-free viral particles and inhibiting viral binding. Further examination by molecular docking analysis pinpointed the targets of the tannins in the fivefold axis canyon region of the CVA16 capsid near the pocket entrance that functions in cell surface receptor binding. We suggest that CHLA and PUG are efficient antagonists of CVA16 entry and could be of value as antiviral candidates or as starting points for developing molecules to treat CVA16 infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Ju Lin
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Hsuan Liu
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Jonathan Y Wang
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Chun-Ching Lin
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Natural Products, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Fang Li
- Graduate Institute of Natural Products, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Christopher D Richardson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4R2, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics and Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Izaak Walton Killam Health Centre, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3K 6R8, Canada
| | - Liang-Tzung Lin
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, , Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|