The FLOWERING LOCUS T LIKE 2-1 gene of Chenopodium triggers precocious flowering in Arabidopsis seedlings

The FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) gene is the essential integrator of flowering regulatory pathways in angiosperms. The paralogs of the FT gene may perform antagonistic functions, as exemplified by BvFT1, that suppresses flowering in Beta vulgaris, unlike the paralogous activator BvFT2. The roles of FT genes in other amaranths were less investigated. Here, we transformed Arabidopsis thaliana with the FLOWERING LOCUS T like (FTL) genes of Chenopodium ficifolium and found that both CfFTL1 and CfFTL2-1 accelerated flowering, despite having been the homologs of the Beta vulgaris floral promoter and suppressor, respectively. The floral promotive effect of CfFTL2-1 was so strong that it caused lethality when overexpressed under the 35S promoter. CfFTL2-1 placed in an inducible cassette accelerated flowering after induction with methoxyphenozide. The spontaneous induction of CfFTL2-1 led to precocious flowering in some primary transformants even without chemical induction. The CqFT2-1 homolog from Chenopodium quinoa had the same impact on viability and flowering as CfFTL2-1 when transferred to A. thaliana. After the FTL gene duplication in Amaranthaceae, the FTL1 copy maintained the role of floral activator. The second copy FTL2 underwent subsequent duplication and functional diversification, which enabled it to control the onset of flowering in amaranths to adapt to variable environments.

Comparative Analysis of Six Chloroplast Genomes in Chenopodium and Its Related Genera (Amaranthaceae): New Insights into Phylogenetic Relationships and the Development of Species-Specific Molecular Markers

Species within the genus Chenopodium hold significant research interest due to their nutritional richness and salt tolerance. However, the morphological similarities among closely related species and a dearth of genomic resources have impeded their comprehensive study and utilization. In the present research, we conduct the sequencing and assembly of chloroplast (cp) genomes from six Chenopodium and related species, five of which were sequenced for the first time. These genomes ranged in length from 151,850 to 152,215 base pairs, showcased typical quadripartite structures, and encoded 85 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 1 pseudogene, 37 tRNA genes, and 8 rRNA genes. Compared with the previously published sequences of related species, these cp genomes are relatively conservative, but there are also some interspecific differences, such as inversion and IR region contraction. We discerned 929 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and a series of highly variable regions across 16 related species, predominantly situated in the intergenic spacer (IGS) region and introns. The phylogenetic evaluations revealed that Chenopodium is more closely related to genera such as Atriplex, Beta, Dysphania, and Oxybase than to other members of the Amaranthaceae family. These lineages shared a common ancestor approximately 60.80 million years ago, after which they diverged into distinct genera. Based on InDels and SNPs between species, we designed 12 pairs of primers for species identification, and experiments confirmed that they could completely distinguish 10 related species.

Food production and agricultural systems on the southwestern frontier of the Han Empire: archaeobotanical remains from the 2016 excavation of Hebosuo, Yunnan

Dian Basin in Yunnan province is an important center for both early agricultural production and centralized state formation. Settled agricultural villages are present in the province since at least the third millennium BC, and by the first millennium BC, the Dian Culture, a highly specialized bronze polity, flourished in the Dian Basin and surrounding area, until it was conquered by the Han in 109 BC. The increased deployment of flotation at recent archaeological excavations in Yunnan allowed the reconstruction of agricultural practices from the Neolithic to the early Bronze Age, documented at Baiyangcun, Haimenkou, and Xueshan among others. However, archaeobotanical evidence relating to the pivotal period right before and after the Han conquest have so far been lacking, with only limited written records about agricultural production in the Shiji by Sima Qian. Here we present for the first time direct archaeobotanical evidence relating to this transitional period as revealed by rich Han period deposits found during the 2016 excavation of Hebosuo, the largest Dian settlement investigated in Yunnan so far, dated by direct AMS on charred cereal grains and artefactual evidence as spanning from between 850 BC-220 AD. Following the Han conquest, the main components of the agricultural system did not undergo radical changes, but the weedy flora indicates a heavier reliance of wet-land rice systems, evidencing a higher level of water management or even irrigation practices, and the consequent intensification of the agricultural production. These findings on shifting agricultural regimes in Yunnan also contribute to current debates about the interplay between intensification, food risk, and ecology in times of political instability.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-023-01766-9.

Exploring evolutionary adaptations of leaf heteroblasty in subspecific taxa of Hawaiian Chenopodium oahuense

PREMISE

Chenopodium oahuense is a polymorphic Hawaiian endemic plant inhabiting several xeric habitats. Considerable variability in leaf morphology has made comprehensively describing its diversity difficult. Chenopodium oahuense subsp. ilioense is differentiated from C. oahuense subsp. oahuense by smaller, less-lobed, succulent leaves, smaller seeds, and prostrate to scandent habit. The lacking quantification of leaf shape, succulence, and previously unknown heteroblastic leaf transition in C. oahuense subsp. ilioense complicates the morphological boundaries separating subspecies.

METHODS

This study used landmark analyses, elliptical Fourier descriptors (EFDs), and traditional shape descriptors measured from 1585 greenhouse-grown plant leaves collected over 18 weeks. Principal component analyses visualized correlations in leaf shape, and linear discriminant analyses predicted classifications, either subspecific or heteroblastic.

RESULTS

Identity determination and heteroblastic change visualization were limited in landmark analyses. On the basis of EFDs and shape descriptors, C. oahuense subsp. ilioense was determined to be morphologically differentiated from C. oahuense subsp. oahuense with the Pu'u Ka Pele population as intermediate. The EFDs depicted heteroblastic change, predominantly in lobing. All analyses were restricted in correctly attributing a leaf to the week collected. Shape descriptors generally represented significant heteroblastic change over the growth period.

CONCLUSIONS

These analyses support significant differentiation between the subspecies, particularly from shape descriptors. Furthermore, we quantified the morphological intermediacy of the Pu'u Ka Pele population. Results suggest this population could be the result of incomplete lineage sorting or a recent hybridization of the two subspecies. Hawaiian Chenopodium is a polymorphic lineage notable for future research in adaptive radiations, phenotypic plasticity, and heteroblasty.

Transposons and satellite DNA: on the origin of the major satellite DNA family in the Chenopodium genome

Extensive and complex links exist between transposable elements (TEs) and satellite DNA (satDNA), which are the two largest fractions of eukaryotic genome. These relationships have a crucial effect on genome structure, function and evolution. Here, we report a novel case of mutual relationships between TEs and satDNA. In the genomes of Chenopodium s. str. species, the deletion derivatives of tnp2 conserved domain of the newly discovered CACTA-like TE Jozin are involved in generating monomers of the most abundant satDNA family of the Chenopodium satellitome. The analysis of the relative positions of satDNA and different TEs utilizing assembled Illumina reads revealed several associations between satDNA arrays and the transposases of putative CACTA-like elements when an ~ 40 bp fragment of tnp2 served as the start monomer of the satDNA array. The high degree of identity of the consensus satDNA monomers of the investigated species and the tnp2 fragment (from 82.1 to 94.9%) provides evidence of the genesis of CficCl-61-40 satDNA family monomers from analogous regions of their respective parental elements. The results were confirmed via molecular genetic methods and Oxford Nanopore sequencing. The discovered phenomenon leads to the continuous replenishment of species genomes with new identical satDNA monomers, which in turn may increase species satellitomes similarity.

and Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop.: Phytochemical Content and In Vitro Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Potential

Spontaneous edible plants have an old history of use in popular traditions all around the world, and the rediscovery of these species could also be useful for the search of new drugs. Chenopodium album L. (Amaranthaceae) and Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. (Brassicaceae) are two annual plants traditionally used both as food and herbal remedies against inflammatory disorders. In this work, the potential anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities of these plant species have been investigated, together with their antioxidant potential. The phytochemical composition was assessed as well by means of gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). The antioxidant properties were assessed using the DPPH and β-carotene bleaching test. The ability of extracts to protect against lipid peroxidation was also examined in rat-liver microsomal membranes. All the samples showed a preservation of antioxidant activity up to 60 min. A significant inhibitory activity on the production of the pro-inflammatory mediator nitric oxide was induced in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by the dichloromethane fraction of C. album extract, with an IC₅₀ value equal to 81.7 ± 0.9 μg/mL. The same sample showed also a concentration-dependent anti-denaturation effect on heat-treated bovine serum albumin (IC₅₀ = 975.6 ± 5.5 μg/mL), even if the best in vitro anti-arthritic activity was observed for the dichloromethane fraction of S. officinale extract, with an IC₅₀ value of 680.9 ± 13.2 μg/mL.

Transition from C3 to proto-Kranz to C3-C4 intermediate type in the genus Chenopodium (Chenopodiaceae)

The Chenopodiaceae is one of the families including C4 species among eudicots. In this family, the genus Chenopodium is considered to include only C3 species. However, we report here a transition from C3 photosynthesis to proto-Kranz to C3-C4 intermediate type in Chenopodium. We investigated leaf anatomical and photosynthetic traits of 15 species, of which 8 species showed non-Kranz anatomy and a CO2 compensation point (Γ) typical of C3 plants. However, 5 species showed proto-Kranz anatomy and a C3-like Γ, whereas C. strictum showed leaf anatomy and a Γ typical of C3-C4 intermediates. Chenopodium album accessions examined included both proto-Kranz and C3-C4 intermediate types, depending on locality. Glycine decarboxylase, a key photorespiratory enzyme that is involved in the decarboxylation of glycine, was located predominantly in the mesophyll (M) cells of C3 species, in both M and bundle-sheath (BS) cells in proto-Kranz species, and exclusively in BS cells in C3-C4 intermediate species. The M/BS tissue area ratio, number of chloroplasts and mitochondria per BS cell, distribution of these organelles to the centripetal region of BS cells, the degree of inner positioning (vacuolar side of chloroplasts) of mitochondria in M cells, and the size of BS mitochondria also changed with the change in glycine decarboxylase localization. All Chenopodium species examined were C3-like regarding activities and amounts of C3 and C4 photosynthetic enzymes and δ13C values, suggesting that these species perform photosynthesis without contribution of the C4 cycle. This study demonstrates that Chenopodium is not a C3 genus and is valuable for studying evolution of C3-C4 intermediates.

Associations among air pollutants, grass pollens, and daily number of grass pollen allergen-positive patients: a longitudinal study from 2012 to 2016

BACKGROUND

Grass pollen is the most prevalent sensitizing aeroallergen to cause respiratory allergies in northern China. Air pollutants have a substantial effect on respiratory health and some pollens. This study aimed to investigate relationships among airborne grass pollen, air pollutants and allergic diseases, in order to determine their effects on patients with grass pollen allergies in Beijing, China, during the period from 2013 to 2016.

METHODS

Data regarding autumnal grass pollens and air pollutants measured in Beijing from 2012 to 2016 were obtained from local governmental agencies. Patient data regarding specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) analyses from 2013 to 2016 were obtained from the Department of Allergy in Beijing Tongren Hospital. Spearman's rank correlation analysis was used to assess associations between the daily number of grass pollen allergen-positive patients and the following parameters: 3 clinically-relevant grass pollen genera (Artemisia, Humulus, and Chenopodium) and inhalable pollutants.

RESULTS

Correlation analysis indicated that the daily number of grass pollen-positive patients was significantly associated with the peak period of grass pollens, as well as pollutants SO₂ and NOx. Moreover, concentrations of air pollutants (eg, ozone, oxides of nitrogen [NO_x ], and SO₂ ) were consistently and significantly associated with concentrations of grass pollens; particulate matter 2.5 µm in diameter was negatively associated with Artemisia and Chenopodium pollens.

CONCLUSION

Grass pollens exhibited substantial impact on allergic disease morbidity. Air pollutants impacted allergic disease and grass pollen. Thus, public health and clinical approaches to anticipate and reduce allergic disease morbidity from pollen and pollutants are needed.

(Caryophyllales: Chenopodiaceae)

In this study, the complete chloroplast genome of Chenopodium sp. were sequenced and annotated. The complete chloroplast genome of Chenopodium sp. was composed of circular DNA molecules with a total length of 152,068 bp. The base composition of this chloroplast genome is as follows: A (31.16%), T (31.58%), G (18.27%), and C (18.99%). The chloroplast genome contains 84 protein-coding genes, 8 ribosomal RNA genes (rRNA), and 37 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes. The taxonomic status of the Chenopodium sp. chloroplast genome exhibits a closest relationship with Chenopodium quinoa.

Hybridization and polyploidization within the Chenopodium album aggregate analysed by means of cytological and molecular markers

Hybridization and polyploidization represent an important speciation mechanism in the diploid-polyploid complex of the Chenopodium album aggregate. In the present study we successfully reconstructed the evolutionary histories of the majority of Eurasian representatives of the C. album aggregate, resulting in the most comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of this taxonomically intricate group of species to date. We applied a combination of classical karyology for precise chromosome number determination, genomic in-situ hybridization for the determination of genomic composition, flow cytometry for the estimation of genome size and sequencing of plastid (cpDNA) and nuclear (ribosomal internal transcribed spacer - ITS and the introns of the FLOWERING LOCUS T LIKE genes - FTL) markers for a phylogenetic reconstruction and the identification of parental genomes in polyploid taxa. The FTL markers identified eight well supported evolutionary lineages. Five of them include at least one diploid species, and the remaining three comprise solely the subgenomes of polyploids that probably represent extinct or unknown diploid taxa. The existence of eight basic diploid lineages explains the origin of seven Eurasian polyploid groups and brings evidence of a nearly unlimited number of subgenomic combinations. The supposed promiscuity generated new species wherever different diploid lineages met each other and gave rise to tetraploid species or whenever they met other tetraploid species to produce hexaploid species throughout their evolutionary history. Finally, we unravelled a surprisingly simple scheme of polyploid species formation within the C. album aggregate. We determined seven groups of polyploid species differing in their origin in either Eurasia or Africa and convincingly demonstrated that (1) all Chenopodium polyploid species under study are of allopolyploid origin, (2) there are eight major monophyletic evolutionary lineages represented by extant or extinct/unknown diploid taxa, (3) those monophyletic lineages represent individual subgenomes, (4) hybridization among the lineages created seven subgenomic combinations of polyploid taxa, (5) taxa represented by particular subgenome combinations were further subjected to diversification, and (6) the majority of species are relatively young, not exceeding the age of the Quaternary period.

Organization and evolution of two repetitive sequences, 18-24J and 12-13P, in the genome of Chenopodium (Amaranthaceae)

The abundance and chromosomal organization of two repetitive sequences named 12-13P and 18-24J were analyzed in 24 diploid and nine polyploid species of Chenopodium s.l., with special attention to Chenopodium s.s. Both sequences were predominantly present in species of Chenopodium s.s.; however, differences in the amplification levels were observed among the species. The 12-13P repeat was highly amplified in all of the analyzed Eurasian species, whereas the American diploids showed a marked variation in the amplification levels. The 12-13P repeat contains a tandemly arranged 40 bp minisatellite element forming a large proportion of the genome of Chenopodium (up to 3.5%). FISH revealed its localization to the pericentromeric regions of the chromosomes. The chromosomal distribution of 12-13P delivered additional chromosomal marker for B-genome diploids. The 18-24J repeat showed a dispersed organization in all of the chromosomes of the analyzed diploid species and the Eurasian tetraploids. In the American allotetraploids (C. quinoa, C. berlandieri) and Eurasian allohexaploids (e.g., C. album) very intense hybridization signals of 18-24J were observed only on 18 chromosomes that belong to the B subgenome of these polyploids. Combined cytogenetic and molecular analyses suggests that reorganization of these two repeats accompanied the diversification and speciation of diploid (especially A genome) and polyploid species of Chenopodium s.s.

Development, characterization, and cross-amplification of 16 microsatellite primers for Atriplex tatarica (Amaranthaceae)

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Microsatellite primers were developed to characterize the genetic diversity and structure of the annual herb Atriplex tatarica (Amaranthaceae) and to facilitate ecological and evolutionary studies of A. tatarica and its relatives.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Sixteen novel microsatellite primers were developed for A. tatarica based on high-throughput sequencing of enriched libraries. All markers were polymorphic, with the number of alleles per locus ranging from three to 25 and observed and expected heterozygosity ranging from 0.08 to 0.74 and 0.10 to 0.87, respectively. In addition, some of these loci were successfully amplified and showed polymorphisms in four Atriplex and seven Chenopodium species.

CONCLUSIONS

The microsatellite markers published here will be useful in assessing genetic diversity, structure, and gene flow within and across populations of A. tatarica, as well as in other species of Atriplex and the related genus Chenopodium.

Elevated Genetic Diversity in an F2:6 Population of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) Developed through an Inter-ecotype Cross

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is a seed crop of the Andean highlands and Araucanian coastal regions of South America that has recently expanded in use and production beyond its native range. This is largely due to its superb nutritional value, consisting of protein that is rich in essential amino acids along with vitamins and minerals. Quinoa also presents a remarkable degree of tolerance to saline conditions, drought, and frost. The present study involved 72 F2:6 recombinant-inbred lines and parents developed through hybridization between highland (0654) and coastal (NL-6) germplasm groups. The purpose was to characterize the quinoa germplasm developed, to assess the discriminating potential of 21 agro-morpho-phenological traits, and to evaluate the extent of genetic variability recovered through selfing. A vast amount of genetic variation was detected among the 72 lines evaluated for quantitative and qualitative traits. Impressive transgressive segregation was measured for seed yield (22.42 g/plant), while plant height and maturity had higher heritabilities (73 and 89%, respectively). Other notable characters segregating in the population included panicle and stem color, panicle form, and resistance to downy mildew. In the Principal Component analysis, the first axis explained 74% of the total variation and was correlated to plant height, panicle size, stem diameter, biomass, mildew reaction, maturation, and seed yield; those traits are relevant discriminatory characters. Yield correlated positively with panicle length and biomass. Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean-based cluster analysis identified three groups: one consisting of late, mildew-resistant, high-yielding lines; one having semi-late lines with intermediate yield and mildew susceptibility; and a third cluster consisting of early to semi-late accessions with low yield and mildew susceptibility. This study highlighted the extended diversity regenerated among the 72 accessions and helped to identify potentially adapted quinoa genotypes for production in the Moroccan coastal environment.

Chenopodium album Linn: review of nutritive value and biological properties

Green leafy vegetables have generated interest worldwide as they exhibit multiple benefits for health of human beings. Vegetables can form the cheapest and most readily available sources of important vitamins, minerals, fibres and essential amino acids particularly. In most of the developing countries where the daily diet is dominated by starchy staple foods, vegetables can form the cheapest and most readily available sources of important vitamins, minerals, fibres and essential amino acids. Across the globe there are several local and wild vegetables which are under-exploited because of inadequate scientific information on knowledge of their nutritional potentials. A resurgence of interest has developed in wild vegetables for their possible medicinal values in diets. C. album is under exploited vegetable which has high functional potential apart from basic nutritional benefits. The plant is used in diet not only to provide minerals, fibre, vitamins and essential fatty acids but also enhance sensory and functional value of the food. The plant has been traditionally used as a bloodpurifier, diuretic, sedative, hepatoprotective, antiscorbutic laxative and as an anthelmentic against round and hookworms. Pharmacological studies have revealed that the plant possesses anthelmentic, sperm immobilizing and contraceptive properties. It is also claimed to be antipruritic and antinociceptive in action. Therefore C. album holds a great potential for in depth biological evaluation. No significant work has ever been carried out for processing parameters for this potentially useful plant. Significance and future scope of C. album for public and dietary awareness of its nutritional status has been discussed in this review.

species growing in Poland

The cytotoxic and antioxidant properties of lipophilic compounds extracted from different parts of four Chenopodium L. (Chenopodium album, Chenopodium hybridum, Chenopodium rubrum and Chenopodium urbicum) species were evaluated. The highest phenolic content was found in herb and seeds of all examined plants. Large amounts of free polyphenols were observed in herb extracts of C. album (3.36 mg/g DW), seeds of C. urbicum (3.87 mg/g DW) and roots of C. urbicum (1.52 mg/g DW). The cytotoxic activities of the extracts were assessed against human lung carcinoma A-549 and ovarian carcinoma TOV-112D and normal human fibroblast cell lines. Our study demonstrated that the extracts from the herb of C. rubrum and C. urbicum had the best antioxidant effect of all the extracts analyzed. Most of the extracts tested exhibited low cytotoxicity. However, the extracts from herb and seeds of C. album and C. hybridum showed the significant antiproliferative effect on the TOV-112 cell line.

It can be concluded that antioxidant activity and phenolic composition differ mainly between plant parts and are quite similar between the plants, when the same plant part is analyzed. Thus, the Chenopodium extracts could be used as a readily accessible source of natural antioxidants, and may be used in the pharmaceutical industry and for food supplements production.

Purification and characterization of thermostable monomeric chloroplastic Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase from Chenopodium murale

Superoxide dismutase is the first line of defense against oxidative stress and thus helps in maintaining the cellular integrity. Chenopodium murale, a weed species adapted to widely varying climatic conditions faces extremes of temperatures ranging from 4 °C to 45 °C (Tmax) during growth and development. From this plant, we have purified a thermostable chloroplastic Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (Chl Cu/Zn SOD) to homogeneity using minimal steps. Incubation of lysed chloroplasts at 70 °C for 1h reduced the interference of cytosolic SOD isoforms and reduced the protein content by 75 %. Chloroplastic SOD was purified from the heat stable fraction by gel filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme had a native molecular weight of 24 kDa, a half-life of 47.9 min at 80 °C and showed a single band at 24 kDa on SDS-PAGE. The N-terminus contained the conserved amino acids of chl Cu-Zn SOD. The Chl Cu/Zn SOD protein and its activity were enhanced under very high temperatures, high light intensities and in water stress/recovered C. murale plants under controlled environment conditions. Chl Cu/Zn SOD was also one of the predominant isoforms throughout growing period in field grown plants and declined during senescence. The Chl Cu/Zn SOD activity increased with the increase in ambient temperature and peaked in April with a 45 °C Tmax. These results clearly indicate that the chloroplastic Cu/Zn SOD is stably expressed at extreme environmental conditions. The presence of stable monomeric chloroplastic Cu/Zn SOD might help the plants to maintain the cellular homeostatis against adverse environmental conditions.