Cognitive impairment appears progressive in the mdx mouse

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked recessive muscle wasting disease caused by mutations in the DMD gene, which encodes the large cytoskeletal protein dystrophin. Approximately one-third of DMD patient's exhibit cognitive problems yet it is unknown if cognitive impairments worsen with age. The mdx mouse model is deficient in dystrophin demonstrates cognitive abnormalities, but no studies have investigated this longitudinally. We assessed the consequences of dystrophin deficiency on brain morphology and cognition in male mdx mice. We utilised non-invasive methods to monitor CNS pathology with an aim to identify changes longitudinally (between 4 and 18 months old) which could be used as outcome measures. MRI identified a total brain volume (TBV) increase in control mice with ageing (p < 0.05); but the mdx mice TBV increased significantly more (p < 0.01). Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) identified decreases in grey matter volume, particularly in the hippocampus of the mdx brain, most noticeable from 12 months onwards, as were enlarged lateral ventricles in mdx mice. The caudate putamen of older mdx mice showed increases in T₂- relaxometry which may be considered as evidence of increased water content. Hippocampal spatial learning and memory was decreased in mdx mice, particularly long-term memory, which progressively worsened with age. The novel object recognition (NOR) task highlighted elevated anxiety-related behaviour in older mdx mice. Our studies suggest that dystrophin deficiency causes a progressive cognitive impairment in mice (compared to ageing control mice), becoming evident at late disease stages, and may explain why progressive CNS symptoms are not obvious in DMD patients.

An overview of gambling disorder: from treatment approaches to risk factors

Gambling disorder (GD) has been reclassified recently into the "Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders" category of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), a landmark occurrence for a behavioral addiction. GD is characterized by recurrent, maladaptive gambling behavior that results in clinically significant distress. Although the number of randomized controlled trials assessing the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments is limited, some pharmacological treatments, notably opiate antagonists, have been employed in the treatment of GD. Patients with GD often present cognitive distortions and specific personality traits, making treatment more difficult. Cognitive behavioral therapy has become the most common psychological intervention for treating gambling problems, and it is effective in reducing gambling behavior. In this brief overview, we provide a report on the state of pharmacological and psychological treatments for gambling disorder. Risk factors and potential future lines of research are addressed.

From empathic mind to moral behaviour: the "who", "why" and "how"

In this paper, I start by suggesting a new definition of empathy. I go on by answering the question of "Who feels empathy?". I list some examples of people, illustrating how the level of feeling empathy differs from one category of people to another. It's actually almost everybody who feels empathy: the baby, the good Samaritan and the other two priests, the tax evader, the psychopath, the judges, juries, lawyers, the politician, the bully adolescent, the therapist, etc.… Then I explain, "Why empathy is experienced/felt differently?", by drawing on some neuroscience data, and some literature in psychology or philosophy along with some personal suggestions or assumptions. Just to mention one plausible data: we know that the human brain is half developed at birth. It takes twelve to fourteen years for the brain to fully develop. And the frontal lobe continues to develop until the third decade of life! I suggest we must attend to these phases of brain development to learn empathy since that is when the plasticity of the brain and the learning kick-in. Hence, the third section of the paper demonstrates "How can we develop an empathic mind/behaviour given the nature of our empathic brain?": with some supportive research and studies, I justify the statement that "ideally from early age, and all the way up to adulthood, empathy can be learned through nurturing, education, imitation…, through alternative realities such as mindfulness and awareness, and through therapy, memory improvement, training programs, etc.…" In the conclusion, I assert, using some philosophical thoughts and analogies, that a fully developed empathic behaviour, that embraces all three aspects cognitive, affective and compassionate empathy, being the opposite of indifference, is the vehicle to a peaceful, harmonious and just society.