1
|
Ge Y, Li D, Wang N, Shi Y, Guo G, Fang L, Zou Q, Liu Q. Unveiling the fructose metabolism system in Staphylococcus aureus: insights into the regulatory role of FruR and the FruRKT operon in bacterial fitness. BMC Microbiol 2024; 24:13. [PMID: 38177984 PMCID: PMC10765703 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-03151-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The utilization of fructose as a carbon source and energy provider plays a crucial role in bacterial metabolism. Additionally, fructose metabolism directly impacts the pathogenicity and virulence of certain pathogenic microorganisms. RESULTS In this study, we report the discovery of a fructose phosphotransferase system (PTS) in S. aureus. This system comprises three genes, namely fruR, fruK, and fruT, which are co-located in an operon that is indispensable for fructose utilization in S. aureus. Our findings confirm that these three genes are transcribed from a single promoter located upstream of the fruRKT operon. The fruR gene encodes a DeoR-type transcriptional regulator, designated as FruR, which represses the expression of the fruRKT operon by direct binding to its promoter region. Significantly, our experimental data demonstrate that the fruRKT operon can be induced by fructose, suggesting a potential regulatory mechanism involving intracellular fructose-1-phosphate as a direct inducer. Furthermore, we conducted RNA-seq analysis to investigate the specificity of FruR regulation in S. aureus, revealing that the fruRKT operon is predominantly regulated by FruR. CONCLUSIONS In summary, this study has uncovered a fructose phosphotransferase system (PTS) in S. aureus, highlighting the essential role of the fruR, fruK, and fruT genes in fructose utilization. We confirmed their co-location within an operon and established FruR as a key regulator by binding to the operon's promoter. Importantly, we demonstrated that fructose can induce this operon, possibly through intracellular fructose-1-phosphate. Our identification of this PTS system represents the initial characterization of a fructose metabolism system in S. aureus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Ge
- West China Biopharmaceutical Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Daiyu Li
- West China Biopharmaceutical Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ning Wang
- West China Biopharmaceutical Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yun Shi
- West China Biopharmaceutical Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Gang Guo
- West China Biopharmaceutical Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Liyuan Fang
- Genomics Center of Core Facilities, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Quanming Zou
- National Engineering Research Center of Immunological Products, Department of Microbiology and Biochemical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- West China Biopharmaceutical Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhang Y, Zhang H, Yang Z, Zhang XH, Miao Q, Li M, Zhai TY, Zheng B, Wen JK. miR-155 down-regulation protects the heart from hypoxic damage by activating fructose metabolism in cardiac fibroblasts. J Adv Res 2022; 39:103-117. [PMID: 35777901 PMCID: PMC9263644 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2021.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)1α has been shown to be activated and induces a glycolytic shift under hypoxic condition, however, little attention was paid to the role of HIF1α-actuated fructolysis in hypoxia-induced heart injury. OBJECTIVES In this study, we aim to explore the molecular mechanisms of miR-155-mediated fructose metabolism in hypoxic cardiac fibroblasts (CFs). METHODS Immunostaining, western blot and quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) were performed to detect the expression of glucose transporter 5 (GLUT5), ketohexokinase (KHK)-A and KHK-C in miR-155-/- and miR-155wt CFs under normoxia or hypoxia. A microarray analysis of circRNAs was performed to identify circHIF1α. Then CoIP, RIP and mass spectrometry analysis were performed and identified SKIV2L2 (MTR4) and transformer 2 alpha (TRA2A), a member of the transformer 2 homolog family. pAd-SKIV2L2 was administrated after coronary artery ligation to investigate whether SKIV2L2 can provide a protective effect on the infarcted heart. RESULTS When both miR-155-/- and miR-155wt CFs were exposed to hypoxia for 24 h, these two cells exhibited an increased glycolysis and decreased glycogen synthesis, and the expression of KHK-A and KHK-C, the central fructose-metabolizing enzyme, was upregulated. Mechanistically, miR-155 deletion in CFs enhanced SKIV2L2 expression and its interaction with TRA2A, which suppresses the alternative splicing of HIF1α pre-mRNA to form circHIF1α, and then decreased circHIF1α contributed to the activation of fructose metabolism through increasing the production of the KHK-C isoform. Finally, exogenous delivery of SKIV2L2 reduced myocardial damage in the infarcted heart. CONCLUSION In this study, we demonstrated that miR-155 deletion facilitates the activation of fructose metabolism in hypoxic CFs through regulating alternative splicing of HIF1α pre-mRNA and thus circHIF1ɑ formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China; Department of Urology, Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University 050000, China
| | - Zhan Yang
- Department of Urology, Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University 050000, China
| | - Xin-Hua Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Qing Miao
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, 050000, China
| | - Min Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Tian-Ying Zhai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Bin Zheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China.
| | - Jin-Kun Wen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pastor JM, Borges N, Pagán JP, Castaño-Cerezo S, Csonka LN, Goodner BW, Reynolds KA, Gonçalves LG, Argandoña M, Nieto JJ, Vargas C, Bernal V, Cánovas M. Fructose metabolism in Chromohalobacter salexigens: interplay between the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas and Entner-Doudoroff pathways. Microb Cell Fact 2019; 18:134. [PMID: 31409414 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-019-1178-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The halophilic bacterium Chromohalobacter salexigens metabolizes glucose exclusively through the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway, an adaptation which results in inefficient growth, with significant carbon overflow, especially at low salinity. Preliminary analysis of C. salexigens genome suggests that fructose metabolism could proceed through the Entner-Doudoroff and Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathways. In order to thrive at high salinity, this bacterium relies on the biosynthesis and accumulation of ectoines as major compatible solutes. This metabolic pathway imposes a high metabolic burden due to the consumption of a relevant proportion of cellular resources, including both energy molecules (NADPH and ATP) and carbon building blocks. Therefore, the existence of more than one glycolytic pathway with different stoichiometries may be an advantage for C. salexigens. The aim of this work is to experimentally characterize the metabolism of fructose in C. salexigens. RESULTS Fructose metabolism was analyzed using in silico genome analysis, RT-PCR, isotopic labeling, and genetic approaches. During growth on fructose as the sole carbon source, carbon overflow was not observed in a wide range of salt concentrations, and higher biomass yields were reached. We unveiled the initial steps of the two pathways for fructose incorporation and their links to central metabolism. While glucose is metabolized exclusively through the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway, fructose is also partially metabolized by the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) route. Tracking isotopic label from [1-13C] fructose to ectoines revealed that 81% and 19% of the fructose were metabolized through ED and EMP-like routes, respectively. Activities of enzymes from both routes were demonstrated in vitro by 31P-NMR. Genes encoding predicted fructokinase and 1-phosphofructokinase were cloned and the activities of their protein products were confirmed. Importantly, the protein encoded by csal1534 gene functions as fructose bisphosphatase, although it had been annotated previously as pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructokinase. The gluconeogenic rather than glycolytic role of this enzyme in vivo is in agreement with the lack of 6-phosphofructokinase activity previously described. CONCLUSIONS Overall, this study shows that C. salexigens possesses a greater metabolic flexibility for fructose catabolism, the ED and EMP pathways contributing to a fine balancing of energy and biosynthetic demands and, subsequently, to a more efficient metabolism.
Collapse
|
4
|
Francey C, Cros J, Rosset R, Crézé C, Rey V, Stefanoni N, Schneiter P, Tappy L, Seyssel K. The extra-splanchnic fructose escape after ingestion of a fructose-glucose drink: An exploratory study in healthy humans using a dual fructose isotope method. Clin Nutr ESPEN 2018; 29:125-132. [PMID: 30661675 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The presence of specific fructose transporters and fructose metabolizing enzymes has now been demonstrated in the skeletal muscle, brain, heart, adipose tissue and many other tissues. This suggests that fructose may be directly metabolized and play physiological or pathophysiological roles in extra-splanchnic tissues. Yet, the proportion of ingested fructose reaching the systemic circulation is generally not measured. This study aimed to assess the amount of oral fructose escaping first-pass splanchnic extraction after ingestion of a fructose-glucose drink using a dual oral-intravenous fructose isotope method. METHODS Nine healthy volunteers were studied over 2 h before and 4 h after ingestion of a drink containing 30.4 ± 1.0 g of glucose (mean ± SEM) and 30.4 ± 1.0 g of fructose labelled with 1% [U-13C6]-fructose. A 75%-unlabeled fructose and 25%-[6,6-2H2]-fructose solution was continuously infused (100 μg kg-1 min-1) over the 6 h period. Total systemic, oral and endogenous fructose fluxes were calculated from plasma fructose concentrations and isotopic enrichments. The fraction of fructose escaping first-pass splanchnic extraction was calculated assuming a complete intestinal absorption of the fructose drink. RESULTS Fasting plasma fructose concentration before tracer infusion was 17.9 ± 0.6 μmol.L-1. Fasting endogenous fructose production detected by tracer dilution analysis was 55.3 ± 3.8 μg kg-1min-1. Over the 4 h post drink ingestion, 4.4 ± 0.2 g of ingested fructose (i.e. 14.5 ± 0.8%) escaped first-pass splanchnic extraction and reached the systemic circulation. Endogenous fructose production significantly increased to a maximum of 165.4 ± 10.7 μg kg-1·min-1 60 min after drink ingestion (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that a non-negligible fraction of fructose is able to escape splanchnic extraction and circulate in the periphery. The metabolic effects of direct fructose metabolism in extra-splanchnic tissues, and their relationship with metabolic diseases, remain to be evaluated. Our results also open new research perspectives regarding the physiological role of endogenous fructose production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Célia Francey
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Jérémy Cros
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Robin Rosset
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Camille Crézé
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Valentine Rey
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Stefanoni
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Schneiter
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Luc Tappy
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland
| | - Kevin Seyssel
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 7A Rue du Bugnon, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Doke T, Ishimoto T, Hayasaki T, Ikeda S, Hasebe M, Hirayama A, Soga T, Kato N, Kosugi T, Tsuboi N, Lanaspa MA, Johnson RJ, Kadomatsu K, Maruyama S. Lacking ketohexokinase-A exacerbates renal injury in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Metabolism 2018; 85:161-170. [PMID: 29604362 PMCID: PMC6394855 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ketohexokinase (KHK), a primary enzyme in fructose metabolism, has two isoforms, namely, KHK-A and KHK-C. Previously, we reported that renal injury was reduced in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice which lacked both isoforms. Although both isoforms express in kidney, it has not been elucidated whether each isoform plays distinct roles in the development of diabetic kidney disease (DKD). The aim of the study is to elucidate the role of KHK-A for DKD progression. MATERIALS AND METHODS Diabetes was induced by five consecutive daily intraperitoneal injections of streptozotocin (50 mg/kg) in C57BL/6J wild-type mice, mice lacking KHK-A alone (KHK-A KO), and mice lacking both KHK-A and KHK-C (KHK-A/C KO). At 35 weeks, renal injury, inflammation, hypoxia, and oxidative stress were examined. Metabolomic analysis including polyol pathway, fructose metabolism, glycolysis, TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle, and NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) metabolism in kidney and urine was done. RESULTS Diabetic KHK-A KO mice developed severe renal injury compared to diabetic wild-type mice, and this was associated with further increases of intrarenal fructose, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), TCA cycle intermediate levels, and severe inflammation. In contrast, renal injury was prevented in diabetic KHK-A/C KO mice compared to both wild-type and KHK-A KO diabetic mice. Further, diabetic KHK-A KO mice contained decreased renal NAD+ level with the increase of renal hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha expression despite having increased renal nicotinamide (NAM) level. CONCLUSION These results suggest that KHK-C might play a deleterious role in DKD progression through endogenous fructose metabolism, and that KHK-A plays a unique protective role against the development of DKD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomohito Doke
- Departments of Nephrology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan; Departments of Biochemistry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Takuji Ishimoto
- Departments of Nephrology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan.
| | - Takahiro Hayasaki
- Departments of Nephrology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Satsuki Ikeda
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | - Masako Hasebe
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | - Akiyoshi Hirayama
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | - Tomoyoshi Soga
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | - Noritoshi Kato
- Departments of Nephrology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Tomoki Kosugi
- Departments of Nephrology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Naotake Tsuboi
- Departments of Nephrology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Miguel A Lanaspa
- Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Richard J Johnson
- Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Kenji Kadomatsu
- Departments of Biochemistry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Shoichi Maruyama
- Departments of Nephrology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ijare OB, Baskin DS, Sharpe MA, Pichumani K. Metabolism of fructose in B-cells: A 13C NMR spectroscopy based stable isotope tracer study. Anal Biochem 2018; 552:110-117. [PMID: 29654744 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Earlier studies on glucose metabolism in B-cells suggested an active TCA cycle in both naïve B cells and differentiated IgA plasma cells. Glycolysis was shown to be more active in IgA plasma cells than naïve B-cells. There have been no reports on the metabolism of fructose in B-cells. Fructose is a major sugar present in the western diet. Thus, we have investigated the metabolism of fructose in B-cells including the effect of glucose on the metabolism of fructose. In this study, using 13C NMR spectroscopy and [U-13C]fructose and [U-13C]glucose as stable 13C isotope tracers, we investigated the metabolic fate of fructose and glucose in B-cells. B-cells showed mitochondrial oxidation of fructose when administered alone, but showed diminished oxidation of fructose in the presence of glucose. On the other hand, fructose did not significantly affect the mitochondrial metabolism of glucose.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Omkar B Ijare
- Kenneth R. Peak Brain and Pituitary Tumor Treatment Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital and Research Institute, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - David S Baskin
- Kenneth R. Peak Brain and Pituitary Tumor Treatment Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital and Research Institute, Houston, TX, 77030, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Martyn A Sharpe
- Kenneth R. Peak Brain and Pituitary Tumor Treatment Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital and Research Institute, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Kumar Pichumani
- Kenneth R. Peak Brain and Pituitary Tumor Treatment Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital and Research Institute, Houston, TX, 77030, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Varma V, Boros LG, Nolen GT, Chang CW, Wabitsch M, Beger RD, Kaput J. Metabolic fate of fructose in human adipocytes: a targeted 13C tracer fate association study. Metabolomics 2015; 11:529-544. [PMID: 25972768 PMCID: PMC4419153 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-014-0716-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The development of obesity is becoming an international problem and the role of fructose is unclear. Studies using liver tissue and hepatocytes have contributed to the understanding of fructose metabolism. Excess fructose consumption also affects extra hepatic tissues including adipose tissue. The effects of fructose on human adipocytes are not yet fully characterized, although in vivo studies have noted increased adiposity and weight gain in response to fructose sweetened-beverages. In order to understand and predict the metabolic responses of adipocytes to fructose, this study examined differentiating and differentiated human adipocytes in culture, exposed to a range of fructose concentrations equivalent to that reported in blood after consuming fructose. A stable isotope based dynamic profiling method using [U-13C6]-d-fructose tracer was used to examine the metabolism and fate of fructose. A targeted stable isotope tracer fate association method was used to analyze metabolic fluxes and flux surrogates with exposure to escalating fructose concentration. This study demonstrated that fructose stimulates anabolic processes in adipocytes robustly, including glutamate and de novo fatty acid synthesis. Furthermore, fructose also augments the release of free palmitate from fully differentiated adipocytes. These results imply that in the presence of fructose, the metabolic response of adipocytes in culture is altered in a dose dependent manner, particularly favoring increased glutamate and fatty acid synthesis and release, warranting further in vivo studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vijayalakshmi Varma
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, 3900 NCTR Road, Jefferson, AR 72079 USA
| | - László G. Boros
- SiDMAP LLC, Los Angeles, CA 90064 USA
- Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute (LABIOMED), Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90502 USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90502 USA
| | - Greg T. Nolen
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, 3900 NCTR Road, Jefferson, AR 72079 USA
| | - Ching-Wei Chang
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079 USA
| | - Martin Wabitsch
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Richard D. Beger
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, 3900 NCTR Road, Jefferson, AR 72079 USA
| | - Jim Kaput
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, 3900 NCTR Road, Jefferson, AR 72079 USA
- Systems Nutrition and Health, Nestle Institute of Health Sciences, Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|