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Schiltz HK, McVey AJ, van Dyk IS, Adler EJ, Van Hecke AV. Brief Report: Links Between Nonconformity to Gender Norms, Autistic Features, and Internalizing Symptoms in a Non-clinical College Sample. J Autism Dev Disord 2021; 53:1717-1725. [PMID: 33893594 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-05033-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Research shows elevated gender variance among autistic people and more autistic traits among gender diverse people, each of which is related to mental health concerns. Little work has explored broad features of these presentations in a non-clinical sample. College students (n = 174) ages 18-22 years completed questionnaires assessing the broader autism phenotype (BAP), autistic features, nonconformity to gender norms, and internalizing symptoms. Those with more BAP features or autistic communication reported more nonconformity to gender norms. Higher levels of internalizing symptoms were related to more gender nonconformity, BAP, and autistic features. Gender nonconformity marginally moderated the effect of BAP on depression but not anxiety. The BAP, autistic features, and gender nonconformity are important in understanding mental well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hillary K Schiltz
- Department of Psychology, Marquette University, 604 N. 16th St., Milwaukee, WI, 53233, USA.
| | - Alana J McVey
- Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Elyse J Adler
- Department of Psychology, Marquette University, 604 N. 16th St., Milwaukee, WI, 53233, USA
| | - Amy V Van Hecke
- Department of Psychology, Marquette University, 604 N. 16th St., Milwaukee, WI, 53233, USA
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2
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McPhate L, Williams K, Vance A, Winther J, Pang K, May T. Gender Variance in Children and Adolescents with Neurodevelopmental and Psychiatric Conditions from Australia. Arch Sex Behav 2021; 50:863-871. [PMID: 33788061 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-021-01918-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Gender variance is a broad term used to describe gender non-conforming behaviors. Past studies have used the parental response to Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) Item 110, which asks whether a child "Wishes to be of opposite sex" as an indicator of gender variance. The population prevalence of gender variance in children and adolescents using this metric was found to be 1.2% in birth-assigned females and 0.4% in birth-assigned males (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). However, in those referred for psychiatric evaluation, it was higher (5.4% of birth-assigned females and 2.8% of birth-assigned males) (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). The aim of this study was to use the CBCL to estimate the prevalence of gender variance among children and adolescents with neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions and assess whether this was higher compared to controls. The response to the CBCL and the child's neurodevelopmental and/or psychiatric diagnosis were extracted from the clinical notes of 1553 children and adolescents referred to an outpatient psychiatry clinic in Australia. This was compared to data from 181 control participants as well as to the CBCL standardization sample of 1605 controls. Of the 1553 young people, whose mean age was 10.9 years, gender variance was reported in 3.1% compared to 1.7% in local control participants (p > .05) and 0.7% in the CBCL controls (p < .0001). Rates varied depending upon the underlying diagnosis (ASD 5.2%; ADHD 2.5%, intellectual disability 4.7%; depression 2.6%; and anxiety 4.7%). In this way, our findings support past observations that young people with neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions have high rates of gender variance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy McPhate
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Katrina Williams
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Alasdair Vance
- Academic Child Psychiatry Unit and Developmental Neuropsychiatry Program, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jo Winther
- Academic Child Psychiatry Unit and Developmental Neuropsychiatry Program, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kenneth Pang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.
- Inflammation Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Tamara May
- Department of Paediatrics, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
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Santarossa A, Nabbijohn AN, van der Miesen AIR, Peragine DE, VanderLaan DP. Separation anxiety and gender variance in a community sample of children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2019; 28:1629-1643. [PMID: 30993534 DOI: 10.1007/s00787-019-01319-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In clinical child and retrospective adult samples, childhood gender variance (GV; i.e., cross-gender behaviour) has been associated with separation anxiety (SA; i.e., distress related to separation from attachment figures) in males. This study examined GV and SA in a nonclinical sample of 892 boys and 933 girls aged 6-12 years via parent-reports. Parental factors (i.e., parenting style, parent-child relationship, willingness to serve as an attachment figure, attitudes towards gender stereotypes in children) were examined as potential moderators. GV predicted SA in boys, even when statistically controlling for general psychopathology and demographic variables. Authoritative parenting, closeness in the parent-child relationship, willingness to serve as an attachment figure, and liberal attitudes towards gender stereotypes in children moderated the association between GV and SA in both boys and girls. Thus, SA may be a unique internalizing problem related to GV in boys in nonclinical samples and influenced by a variety of parental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alanna Santarossa
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - A Natisha Nabbijohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Anna I R van der Miesen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Diana E Peragine
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Doug P VanderLaan
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada. .,Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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Nabbijohn AN, van der Miesen AIR, Santarossa A, Peragine D, de Vries ALC, Popma A, Lai MC, VanderLaan DP. Gender Variance and the Autism Spectrum: An Examination of Children Ages 6-12 Years. J Autism Dev Disord 2019; 49:1570-1585. [PMID: 30547258 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-3843-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Gender variance (GV) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) frequently co-occur in clinical populations. We investigated GV in association with ASD characteristics in nonclinical children and in children with developmental/mental health diagnoses. In 6-12-year-olds (N = 2445; 51% birth-assigned boys), the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children measured GV and the Children's Social Behavior Questionnaire measured six subdomains of ASD characteristics. Among nonclinical children, GV was associated with parent-reported difficulties orienting socially and stereotyped behaviors. GV was also associated with parent-reported clinical diagnoses of ASD, sensory processing disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder. These findings suggest associations between specific ASD characteristics and GV in nonclinical children. Also, childhood GV should be further examined in a range of clinical populations, including ASD individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Natisha Nabbijohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Deerfield Hall, 3359 Mississauga Road, Office 4098, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Anna I R van der Miesen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alanna Santarossa
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Deerfield Hall, 3359 Mississauga Road, Office 4098, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| | - Diana Peragine
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Deerfield Hall, 3359 Mississauga Road, Office 4098, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Annelou L C de Vries
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arne Popma
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Meng-Chuan Lai
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Deerfield Hall, 3359 Mississauga Road, Office 4098, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Autism Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Psychiatry, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Doug P VanderLaan
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Deerfield Hall, 3359 Mississauga Road, Office 4098, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada. .,Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada.
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Chiniara LN, Bonifacio HJ, Palmert MR. Characteristics of Adolescents Referred to a Gender Clinic: Are Youth Seen Now Different from Those in Initial Reports? Horm Res Paediatr 2018; 89:434-441. [PMID: 29920505 DOI: 10.1159/000489608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS To examine characteristics, including mental health comorbidities, among adolescents presenting to a transgender clinic and to compare these data to previous reports. METHODS Retrospective chart review among youth seen at The Hospital for Sick Children between January 2014 and June 2016. Demographic data, clinical characteristics, and mental health comorbidities were assessed. Baseline and repeat blood work were also examined. RESULTS Charts from 203 adolescents aged 12-18 years were reviewed (156 assigned female at birth [AFAB] (77%) aged 16.3 ± 1.63 years, 47 assigned male at birth [AMAB] aged 16.1 ± 1.70 years). There was no statistically significant difference between gender groups except for Tanner stage (AFAB, mean 4.42 ± 0.8 and AMAB, mean 4.03 ± 1.1, p = 0.040). Individuals from racial/ethnic minority populations were under-represented compared to the background population. Self-report and baseline psychological questionnaires showed high levels of gender dysphoria, mood disorders, and suicidal ideation, with higher levels of anxiety detected on questionnaires among AFAB (p = 0.03). Laboratory abnormalities identified on baseline and repeat testing were minor; on cross-sex hormones, hemoglobin levels increased slightly in AFAB (p = 0.002, highest = 166 g/L) and decreased among AMAB (p = 0.02, lowest = 132 g/L). CONCLUSION Our study supports an evolving demographic trend with more AFAB than AMAB youth now presenting to gender clinics. The data also corroborate studies indicating that extensive laboratory testing may not be a necessary part of caring for these youths. Why more AFAB are now presenting to clinic and racial/ethnic minorities are underrepresented is not clear, but these trends have important implications for clinical care and warrant further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyne N Chiniara
- Division of Endocrinology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Herbert J Bonifacio
- Division of Adolescent Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mark R Palmert
- Division of Endocrinology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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van der Miesen AIR, Hurley H, Bal AM, de Vries ALC. Prevalence of the Wish to be of the Opposite Gender in Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Arch Sex Behav 2018; 47:2307-2317. [PMID: 29736809 PMCID: PMC6245048 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-018-1218-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have suggested an overrepresentation of (symptoms of) autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among individuals with gender dysphoria. Three studies have taken the inverse approach in children with ASD and showed increased parent report of the wish to be of the opposite gender in this group. This study compared the self-reported wish to be of the opposite gender (one item of the Youth Self-Report [YSR] and the Adult Self-Report [ASR]) of 573 adolescents (469 assigned boys and 104 assigned girls) and 807 adults (616 assigned males and 191 assigned females) with ASD to 1016 adolescents and 846 adults from the general population. Emotional and behavioral problems were measured by the DSM-oriented scales of the YSR and ASR. In addition, the Children's Social Behavior Questionnaire and the Adult Social Behavior Questionnaire were used to measure specific subdomains of the ASD spectrum to test whether specific subdomains of ASD were particularly involved. Significantly more adolescents (6.5%) and adults (11.4%) with ASD endorsed this item as compared to the general population (3-5%). In adolescents, assigned girls endorsed this item more than assigned boys. No significant gender differences were found in the adults with ASD. In addition, on all DSM-oriented scales of both the YSR and ASR, adolescents and adults with ASD who endorsed the gender item had significantly higher scores compared to those without. There were no significant associations between endorsement of the gender item and any specific subdomain of ASD, providing no evidence for a sole role of one of the ASD subdomains and endorsement of the wish to be the opposite gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna I R van der Miesen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Hannah Hurley
- Dr. Leo Kannerhuis, Center for Autism, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anneloes M Bal
- Dr. Leo Kannerhuis, Center for Autism, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annelou L C de Vries
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Johns MM, Beltran O, Armstrong HL, Jayne PE, Barrios LC. Protective Factors Among Transgender and Gender Variant Youth: A Systematic Review by Socioecological Level. J Prim Prev 2018; 39:263-301. [PMID: 29700674 PMCID: PMC5976555 DOI: 10.1007/s10935-018-0508-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Transgender and gender variant (GV) youth experience elevated risk for poor health and academic outcomes due mainly to social experiences of stigma and discrimination. To supplement the growing evidence on health risks encountered by transgender/GV youth, we identified factors theorized to be protective for these youth across all four levels of Bronfenbrenner's socioecological model (individual, relationship, community, societal). We conducted a systematic search of peer-reviewed research. The articles included in this review were published in peer-reviewed journals in English or Spanish between 1999 and 2014, analyzed data from a sample or subsample of transgender or GV participants with a mean age between 10 and 24 years, and examined the relationship of at least one theorized protective factor to a health or behavioral outcome. Twenty-one articles met inclusion criteria. Transgender/GV youth in included articles ranged from 11 to 26 years of age, were racially/ethnically diverse, and represented varied gender identities. Within these articles, 27 unique protective factors across four levels of the ecological model were identified as related to positive health and well-being. Self-esteem at the individual level, healthy relationships with parents and peers at the relationship-level, and gay-straight alliances at the community level emerged as protective factors across multiple studies. Our findings underscore the relative lack of research on transgender/GV youth and protective factors. Novel recruitment strategies for transgender/GV youth and better measurement of transgender identities are needed to confirm these protective relationships and identify others. Growth in these areas will contribute to building a body of evidence to inform interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Marie Johns
- Division of Adolescent and School Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road MS E-75, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | | | | | - Paula E Jayne
- Division of Adolescent and School Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road MS E-75, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA
| | - Lisa C Barrios
- Division of Adolescent and School Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road MS E-75, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA
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Coleman E, Allen MP, Ford JV. Gender Variance and Sexual Orientation Among Male Spirit Mediums in Myanmar. Arch Sex Behav 2018; 47:987-998. [PMID: 29497915 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-018-1172-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Revised: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
This article describes the gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation of male spirit mediums in Myanmar. Our analysis is based on ethnographic work, field observation, and 10 semi-structured interviews. These observations were conducted from 2010 to 2015, mostly in Mandalay, with some fieldwork in Yangon and Bagan. The focus of this investigation was specifically on achout (gender variant individuals) who were spirit mediums (nat kadaw). Semi-structured interviews explored the ways that participants understood their gender identity, gender expression, and sexuality in relation to their work as spirit mediums and broader social life. Myanmar remains quite a homophobic and transphobic culture but is undergoing rapid economic and social change. Therefore, it provides an interesting context to study how safe spaces are produced for sexual/gender minorities amidst broader social change. We find that, through the animistic belief structure, there is a growing space for gender nonconforming people, gender variant, and same-sex-oriented individuals (achout) to neutralize their stigmatized status and attain a level of respect and economic advantage. Their ability to become nat kadaw (mediums of spirits) mitigates or trumps their stigmatized status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eli Coleman
- Program in Human Sexuality, Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota Medical School, 1300 South Second Street, Suite 180, Minneapolis, MN, 55454, USA.
| | | | - Jessie V Ford
- Department of Sociology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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9
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Becker I, Ravens-Sieberer U, Ottová-Jordan V, Schulte-Markwort M. Prevalence of Adolescent Gender Experiences and Gender Expression in Germany. J Adolesc Health 2017; 61:83-90. [PMID: 28363721 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Adolescence marks a transition period in the development of gender experience and expression. Although there is growing awareness about various gender identities in health research, only limited data on the prevalence of adolescent gender variance in the general population exist. METHODS German female and male adolescents (n = 940) aged 10-16 years participating in the nationally representative "Health Behaviour in School-aged Children" Hamburg survey were asked to report their current gender experience (identification as both feminine and masculine) and gender expression (gender role as a girl or boy). Two overall categories and five subcategories on gender experience and expression were established based on previous research. RESULTS In total, 4.1% of the adolescents' responses were rated as variant in gender experience and 3.0% as nonconforming in expression. Both variant experiences and nonconforming expression together were present in only .9% of adolescents. Gender variance was more strongly present in girls and in younger age groups. In detail, 1.6% reported an incongruent, 1.1% an ambivalent, and 1.5% no gender identification. Another 8.0% of the responses could be rated as only somewhat congruent. CONCLUSIONS Fluidity between clearly congruent or incongruent pathways is present in adolescence, including variant as well as possibly still developing (only somewhat clear) gender experiences, whereas clearly incongruent identification and nonconforming expression were less frequent. Understanding adolescent gender development as multidimensional is important to identify the needs of those who do not fit into the current understanding of either female or male.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inga Becker
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany; Institute for Sex Research and Forensic Psychiatry (second affiliation), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Ulrike Ravens-Sieberer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Veronika Ottová-Jordan
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schulte-Markwort
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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de Vries ALC, Klink D, Cohen-Kettenis PT. What the Primary Care Pediatrician Needs to Know About Gender Incongruence and Gender Dysphoria in Children and Adolescents. Pediatr Clin North Am 2016; 63:1121-1135. [PMID: 27865337 DOI: 10.1016/j.pcl.2016.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The recognition and acknowledgment that gender identity and birth-assigned sex may be incongruent in children and adolescents have evolved in recent decades. Transgender care for children and adolescents has developed and is now more widely available. Controversies exist, however, around clinical management of gender dysphoria and gender incongruence in children and adolescents. Clinical guidelines are consensus based and research evidence is limited. Puberty suppression as part of clinical management has become a valuable element of adolescent transgender care, but long-term evidence of success is limited. These uncertainties should be weighed against the risk of harming a transgender adolescent when medical intervention is denied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annelou L C de Vries
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, VU University Medical Center, Room 1y130, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Daniel Klink
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, VU University Medical Center, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peggy T Cohen-Kettenis
- Department of Medical Psychology, VU University Medical Center, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Abstract
Gender variant and transgender youth are seeking medical care at younger ages. Pediatricians and other primary care physicians are often the first professionals who encounter such youth and their families. The goals of this article are to provide information on the epidemiology and natural history of gender variant and transgender youth, current clinical practice guidelines regarding the use of puberty blockers and cross-sex hormones for transgender youth, and limitations and challenges to optimal care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert J Bonifacio
- Division of Adolescent Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Transgender Youth Clinic, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada.
| | - Stephen M Rosenthal
- Pediatric Endocrine Outpatient Services, Pediatric Endocrinology, Child and Adolescent Gender Center, University of California, San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, Room S-672, Box 0434, San Francisco, CA 94143-0434, USA
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Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Puberty and Adolescence".This article aims to provide an outline of what is currently known on trajectories, and contributing factors to gender identity development in adolescence. We give a historical overview of the concept of gender identity, and describe general identity development in adolescence, gender identity development in the general population and in gender variant youth. Possible psychosocial (such as child and parental characteristics) and biological factors (such as the effects of prenatal exposure to gonadal hormones and the role of genetics) contributing to a gender variant identity are discussed. Studies focusing on a number of psychosocial and biological factors separately, indicate that each of these factors influence gender identity formation, but little is known about the complex interplay between the factors, nor about the way individuals themselves contribute to the process. Research into normative and gender variant identity development of adolescents is clearly lagging behind. However, studies on persons with gender dysphoria and disorders of sex development, show that the period of adolescence, with its changing social environment and the onset of physical puberty, seems to be crucial for the development of a non-normative gender identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D Steensma
- Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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13
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Gender variance (GV) in childhood has a negative impact on the self-concept of children in the general population and can lead to mental health problems and even suicidal ideation in adulthood. This study explored the self-concept of clinically referred gender variant children and examined potential risk factors. METHOD The Self-Perception Profile for Children was administered to 147 children, who were referred to a gender identity clinic. Their parents completed the Child Behaviour Checklist and the Gender Identity Questionnaire to assess the degree of GV. RESULTS The referred children were at risk of developing a negative self-concept; more specifically gender variant girls had low scores on 'global self-worth', 'physical appearance' and 'behavioural conduct' compared to Dutch norms for girls. Gender variant boys had low scores on 'global self-worth', 'scholastic competence', 'athletic competence' and 'physical appearance' compared to Dutch norms for boys. Within the group of referred children, sex differences, but no age effects, were found. The referred girls felt more competent than the referred boys on 'athletic competence' and 'scholastic functioning'. For both boys and girls poor peer relations had a significant negative relationship with self-concept and more GV was related to a lower global self-worth. CONCLUSIONS Clinically referred gender variant children seemed vulnerable to developing a negative self-concept. Poor peer relations and extreme GV might be mediating variables. Interventions might focus on enhancing acceptance of the environment and improving social skills of gender variant children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouk Balleur-van Rijn
- Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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