Lana chimpanzee learns to count by "NUMATH": a summary of a videotaped experimental report

This paper summarizes a videotaped presentation (Rumbaugh, Savage-Rumbaugh, Hopkins, Washburn, & Runfeldt, 1987) of computerized training programs whereby an adult female chimpanzee, Lana (Pan troglodytes), learned to use a joystick to remove from a screen the number of boxes appropriate to the value of a randomly selected Arabic numeral 1, 2, or 3. Initial training provided a variety of cues, both numeric and otherwise, to support correct performance. Across software programs, all cues other than numeric ones were deleted. In the final test, Lana was correct on over 80% of trials in which there was no residual feedback of intratrial events and where only her memory of those events could provide the cue to indicate that she had removed boxes in accordance with the value of the target numbers and should terminate the trial. The tape is narrated and consists of video recordings of Lana's performance on each software program.

Automation of learning-set testing: the video-task paradigm

Researchers interested in studying discrimination learning in primates have typically utilized variations in the Wisconsin General Test Apparatus (WGTA). In the present experiment, a new testing apparatus for the study of primate learning is proposed. In the video-task paradigm, rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) respond to computer-generated stimuli by manipulating a joystick. Using this apparatus, discrimination learning-set data for 2 monkeys were obtained. Performance on Trial 2 exceeded 80% within 200 discrimination learning problems. These data illustrate the utility of the video-task paradigm in comparative research. Additionally, the efficient learning and rich data that were characteristic of this study suggest several advantages of the present testing paradigm over traditional WGTA testing.

External audio for IBM-compatible computers

Numerous applications benefit from the presentation of computer-generated auditory stimuli at points discontiguous with the computer itself. Modification of an IBM-compatible computer for use of an external speaker is relatively easy but not intuitive. This modification is briefly described.

Pilot personality and crew coordination: implications for training and selection

The performance of pilots can be construed as a product of skill, attitude, and personality factors. Although a great deal of effort within the aviation community has been focused on ensuring technical expertise, and new efforts highlight attitudes associated with crew coordination, personality factors have been relatively unexplored. Further, it is argued that past failures to find linkages between personality and performance were due to a combination of inadequate statistical modeling, premature performance evaluation, and/or the reliance on data gathered in contrived as opposed to realistic situations. The goal of the research presented in this article is to isolate subgroups of pilots along performance-related personality dimensions and to document limits on the impact of crew coordination training between the groups. Two samples of military pilots were surveyed in the context of training in crew coordination. Three different profiles were identified through cluster analysis of personality scales. These clusters replicated across samples and predicted attitude change following training in crew coordination.

Anatomy of a system accident: the crash of Avianca Flight 052

On January 25, 1990, Avianca Flight 052 crashed after running out of fuel following a missed approach to New York's John F. Kennedy Airport. Weather was poor on the East Coast of the United States that day, and the flight had experienced several holding patterns enroute from Medellín, Colombia, to New York. The accident is analyzed in terms of Helmreich and Foushee's (1993) model of crew performance and Reason's (1990) model of latent pathogens in system operations.

Outcomes of crew resource management training

Participants' self-reports and measures of attitudes regarding flightdeck management indicate that crew resource management training is favorably received and causes highly significant, positive changes in attitudes regarding crew coordination and personal capabilities. However, a subset of participants reacted negatively to the training and showed boomerangs (negative change) in attitudes. Explorations into the causes of this effect pinpoint personality factors and group dynamics as critical determinants of reactions to training and of the magnitude and direction of attitude change. Implications of these findings for organizations desiring to enhance crew effectiveness are discussed, and areas of needed additional research are described.

Testing primates with joystick-based automated apparatus: lessons from the Language Research Center's Computerized Test System

Nonhuman primates provide useful models for studying a variety of medical, biological, and behavioral topics. Four years of joystick-based automated testing of monkeys using the Language Research Center's Computerized Test System (LRC-CTS) are examined to derive hints and principles for comparable testing with other species--including humans. The results of multiple parametric studies are reviewed, and reliability data are presented to reveal the surprises and pitfalls associated with video-task testing of performance.

Game-like tasks for comparative research: leveling the playing field

Game-like computer tasks offer many benefits for psychological research. In this paper, the usefulness of such tasks to bridge population differences (e.g., age, intelligence, species) is discussed and illustrated. A task called ALVIN was used to assess humans' and monkeys' working memory for sequences of colors with or without tones. Humans repeated longer lists than did the monkeys, and only humans benefited when the visual stimuli were accompanied by auditory cues. However, the monkeys did recall sequences at levels comparable to those reported elsewhere for children. Comparison of similarities and differences between the species is possible because the two groups were tested with exactly the same game-like paradigm.

Human factors with nonhumans: factors that affect computer-task performance

There are two general strategies that may be employed for "doing human factors research with nonhuman animals." First, one may use the methods of traditional human factors investigations to examine the nonhuman animal-to-machine interface. Alternatively, one might use performance by nonhuman animals as a surrogate for or model of performance by a human operator. Each of these approaches is illustrated with data in the present review. Chronic ambient noise was found to have a significant but inconsequential effect on computer-task performance by rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Additional data supported the generality of findings such as these to humans, showing that rhesus monkeys are appropriate models human psychomotor performance. It is argued that ultimately the interface between comparative psychology and technology will depend on the coordinated use of both strategies of investigation.

Analyzing the path of responding in maze-solving and other tasks

Response time and accuracy are sensitive measures of overall performance but may mask underlying response strategies. For example, analysis of latency and accuracy measures produced in a computerized-maze task does not reveal whether rhesus monkeys really "solve a maze" or simply move as much as is possible toward the target, negotiating barriers through trial and error as they encounter them. Regression procedures are described for analyzing response path against several hypothetical response curves, and analyses of response path for rhesus monkeys' performance on the computerized MAZE task are presented as an illustration. The data suggest that rhesus monkeys do invoke a response strategy of solving the maze, because the observed response topography is significantly associated with the optimal path of responding. Many experimental paradigms should similarly benefit from analysis of the response paths that subjects exhibit.

The NASA/LRC Computerized Test System

A new testing package, including apparatus and tasks, is described for the study of behavior of a variety of species in a variety of experiments. The package is described with respect to the kinds of comparative psychological investigations for which it is well suited. The preliminary data generated within this new testing paradigm demonstrate that the NASA/LRC Computerized Test System provides a flexible yet powerful environment for the investigation of behavioral and psychological processes.

PC-compatible computer-generated stimuli for video-task testing

Whereas computer technology allows for the automation of experimentation and data collection, the process of stimulus production has remained a relatively labor-intensive process. A program for automatic computer generation of novel nonverbal stimuli is described in this paper. The program, STIMGEN, allows menu-driven control over the type and appearance of stimuli. Data are presented in which two monkeys matched to sample with high accuracy using stimuli generated with STIMGEN. These data are interpreted to support the usefulness and value of automatic stimulus generation in a variety of applications.

Habitual routines in task-performing groups

Groups, like individuals, often develop habitual routines for dealing with frequently encountered stimuli. Although such routines are consequential for group life and work, little is known about them. This paper reconnoiters the territory of habitual behavior in groups that perform work within organizations. We offer a definition of group habits, identify their functions and dysfunctions, suggest how they develop and are maintained, and identify the circumstances when they are likely to be altered or abandoned. Throughout, we give special attention to the social nature of habitual routines in groups, to the interaction between habitual behavior and group life cycle phenomena, and to the role of the organizational context in prompting, shaping, and terminating habitual routines.

Three-dimensional audio versus head-down traffic alert and collision avoidance system displays

The advantage of a head-up auditory display for situational awareness was evaluated in an experiment designed to measure and compare the acquisition time for capturing visual targets under two conditions: standard head-down Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System display and three-dimensional (3-D) audio Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System presentation. (The technology used for 3-D audio presentation allows a stereo headphone user to potentially localize a sound at any externalized position in 3-D auditory space). Ten commercial airline crews were tested under full-mission simulation conditions at the NASA-Ames Crew-Vehicle Systems Research Facility Advanced Concepts Flight Simulator. Scenario software generated targets corresponding to aircraft that activated a 3-D aural advisory (the head-up auditory condition) or a standard, visual-audio TCAS advisory (map display with monaural audio alert). Results showed a significant difference in target acquisition time between the two conditions, favoring the 3-D audio Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System condition by 500 ms.

Physical examination during space flight

OBJECTIVE

To develop techniques for conducting a physical examination in microgravity and to describe and document the physiologic changes noted with use of a modified basic physical examination.

DESIGN

On the basis of data gathered from physical examinations on KC-135 flights, three physical variables were assessed serially in astronauts during two shuttle missions (of 8- and 10-day duration, respectively). Preflight, in-flight, and postflight examinations were conducted by trained physician-astronauts or flight surgeons, who used this modified examination.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Five male and two female crewmembers participated in the "hands-on" physical examination of all physiologic systems except the genitourinary system. Level of edema, intensity of bowel sounds, and peripheral reflexes were assessed and graded.

RESULTS

This investigation identified unique elements of a physical examination performed during space flight that will assist in the development of standard methods for conducting examinations of astronauts in weightlessness. In addition, demonstrable changes induced by microgravity were noted in most physiologic systems examined.

CONCLUSION

The data support the hypothesis that the microgravity examination differs from that conducted on earth or in a 1g environment. In addition, alterations in the physiologic response can be detected with use of hands-on technique. These data are invaluable in the development of optimal medical care for humans in space.

The use of IQ assessment in astronaut screening and evaluation

BACKGROUND

The screening and evaluation of astronaut candidates usually includes measures of cognitive and intellectual capacity. Questions of ceiling effects and discriminability when evaluating individuals assumed to be of above average intelligence should be considered. The current study examines ceiling effects and discriminability on IQ assessment between pilots vs. mission specialists and men vs. women in the selection of astronaut candidates.

METHODS

IQ scores on 104 male and female Shuttle astronaut candidates as measured by the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB) were analyzed via factor analyses and tests of differences between genders, selection status, and job types. Total group, gender, and job type specificity and sensitivity and overall percent correctly classified were assessed on selected vs. unselected classification.

RESULTS

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses failed to replicate the proposed factor configuration prompting reconfigured domain scores. Analyses of differences between gender, selection, and job categories found different results when using reconfigured IQ scores compared to the original formulation. The 10 subscales performed better than overall domain scores in sensitivity, specificity, and as significant predictors of individuals selected. Both versions of Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ scores performed similarly regarding sensitivity and specificity. The reconfigured scores were better predictors of selection.

DISCUSSION

Evidence for sensitivity, specificity, and classification prediction was better for subscales than overall domain scores. Some consideration to using reconfigured domain scores should be given to increase instrument utility.

Presence of mind: a reaction to Thomas Sheridan's "Further musings on the psychophysics of presence."

An operator's sense of remote presence during teleoperation or use of virtual environment interfaces is analyzed as to what characteristics it should have to qualify it as an explanatory scientific construct. But the implicit goal of designing virtual environment interfaces to maximize presence is itself questioned in a second section in which examples of human-machine interfaces beneficially designed to avoid a strong sense of egocentric presence are cited. In conclusion, it is argued that the design of a teleoperation or virtual environment system should generally focus on the efficient communication of causal interaction. In this view the sense of presence, that is of actually being at the simulated or remote workplace, is an epiphenomena of secondary importance for design.

Stroop-like effects for monkeys and humans: processing speed or strength of association?

Stroop-like effects have been found using a variety of paradigms and subject groups. In the present investigation, 6 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and 28 humans exhibited Stroop-like interference and facilitation in a relative-numerousness task. Monkeys, like humans, processed the meanings of the numerical symbols automatically--despite the fact that these meanings were irrelevant to task performance. These data also afforded direct comparison of interpretations of the Stroop effect in terms of processing speed versus association strength. These findings were consistent with parallel-processing models of Stroop-like interference proposed elsewhere, but not with processing-speed accounts posited frequently to explain the effect.

Multichannel spatial auditory display for speech communications

A spatial auditory display for multiple speech communications was developed at NASA/Ames Research Center. Input is spatialized by the use of simplified head-related transfer functions, adapted for FIR filtering on Motorola 56001 digital signal processors. Hardware and firmware design implementations are overviewed for the initial prototype developed for NASA-Kennedy Space Center. An adaptive staircase method was used to determine intelligibility levels of four-letter call signs used by launch personnel at NASA against diotic speech babble. Spatial positions at 30 degrees azimuth increments were evaluated. The results from eight subjects showed a maximum intelligibility improvement of about 6-7 dB when the signal was spatialized to 60 or 90 degrees azimuth positions.

Computer-task testing of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in the social milieu

Previous research has demonstrated that a behavior and performance testing paradigm, in which rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) manipulate a joystick to respond to computer-generated stimuli, provides environmental enrichment and supports the psychological well-being of captive research animals. The present study was designed to determine whether computer-task activity would be affected by pair-housing animals that had previously been tested only in their single-animal home cages. No differences were observed in productivity or performance levels as a function of housing condition, even when the animals were required to "self-identify" prior to performing each trial. The data indicate that cognitive challenge and control are as preferred by the animals as social opportunities, and that, together with comfort/health considerations, each must be addressed for the assurance of psychological well-being.

Apparatus as milestones in the history of comparative psychology

Significant apparatus developments from the history of comparative psychology are reviewed, including the contemporary trend toward computer use in research with nonhuman animals. It is argued that milestone apparatus served not only to open new lines of inquiry but also to shape or delimit the nature of the answers that were obtained.

Captain's and first officers' spheres of influence

Although the "crew is increasingly the unit of focus for technical and CRM Training, a recent study documented that individual crew members exert influence over the crew in unique ways. The actions of captains and first officers influenced the overall performance of the "crew" both positively and negatively. Captains most often used briefings and leadership behaviors to influence crews. First Officers, on the other hand, influenced crew performance by their use of Inquiry / Assertion / Advocacy, Preparation / Planning / Vigilance activities, and Technical Proficiency.

Assessments of astronaut effectiveness

This study examined the reliability and convergent validity of three methods of peer and supervisory ratings of the effectiveness of individual NASA astronauts and their relationships with flight assignments. These two techniques were found to be reliable and relatively convergent. Seniority and a peer-rated Performance and Competence factor proved to be most closely associated with flight assignments, while supervisor ratings and a peer-rated Group Living and Personality factor were found to be unrelated. Results have implications for the selection and training of astronauts.

Multicultural factors in the space environment: results of an international shuttle crew debrief

There is increasing interest and concern about the multicultural and multinational factors which might negatively affect adjustment and performance of Space Station Freedom (SSF) crews, living and working for long periods of time in the space environment. To begin identifying potential problem areas, a crew debrief questionnaire (called an "International Crew Debrief") was mailed to U.S. astronauts who flew on Shuttle missions between 1981-1990 with one or more crewmembers from other countries. There were 20 U.S. astronauts who flew on international space missions; 9 of these responded to the questionnaire, for a return rate of 45%. There were 42 incidents reported: 9 in the preflight period; 26 inflight; and 7 in the postflight period. Most of these incidents were rated as having a low or medium impact, but five of the inflight incidents were rated to have a "high" mission impact. A number of causes for the problems were listed, and are discussed. Debrief respondents provided useful and timely recommendations on preflight training which may help facilitate the integration of multinational crews, and prevent multicultural or multinational factors from interfering with mission operations.

Results of a structured psychiatric interview to evaluate NASA astronaut candidates

One hundred six astronaut applicants who had passed initial screening were evaluated for Axis I and Axis II DSM-III-R diagnoses using a structured psychiatric interview. Nine of 106 candidates (8.5%) met diagnostic criteria for six Axis I (including V-code), or Axis II disorders. The use of the NASA structured interview was effective in identifying past and present psychopathology in a group of highly motivated and healthy astronaut applicants. This was the first time that a structured interview had been used in such a setting for this purpose. The methodology described is applicable to any situation where the presence or history of psychopathology requires evaluation for job selection (e.g. pilot selection).

How should Fitts' Law be applied to human-computer interaction?

The paper challenges the notion that any Fitts' Law model can be applied generally to human-computer interaction, and proposes instead that applying Fitts' Law requires knowledge of the users' sequence of movements, direction of movement, and typical movement amplitudes as well as target sizes. Two experiments examined a text selection task with sequences of controlled movements (point-click and point-drag). For the point-click sequence, a Fitts' Law model that used the diagonal across the text object in the direction of pointing (rather than the horizontal extent of the text object) as the target size provided the best fit for the pointing time data, whereas for the point-drag sequence, a Fitts' Law model that used the vertical size of the text object as the target size gave the best fit. Dragging times were fitted well by Fitts' Law models that used either the vertical or horizontal size of the terminal character in the text object. Additional results of note were that pointing in the point-click sequence was consistently faster than in the point-drag sequence, and that pointing in either sequence was consistently faster than dragging. The discussion centres around the need to define task characteristics before applying Fitts' Law to an interface design or analysis, analyses of pointing and of dragging, and implications for interface design.

The Language Research Center's Computerized Test System for environmental enrichment and psychological assessment

In the spring of 1987, we undertook to provide environmental enrichment to nonhuman primate subjects in ways that would complement and even contribute to the bio-behaviorial science that justified the monkeys' captivity. Of course, the psychological well-being of captive primates--and indeed all research species-- has been an area of intense research activity since the 1985 amendment of the Animal Welfare Act. This mandate for researchers to ensure the psychological, as well as physical, fitness of experimental animals catalyzed the humane and scientific interests of the research community. The contemporary literature is replete with proposed means both of assaying and of providing enrichment and well-being. Notwithstanding, consensus on either assessment or intervention has yet to be reached. The paradigm we employed was modelled after successful efforts with chimpanzees. An automated test system was constructed in which subjects responded to computer tasks by manipulating a joystick. The tasks, interactive game-like versions of many of the classic testing paradigms of cognitive and comparative psychology, permitted the controlled presentation of stimuli and demands without the required presence of a human experimenter. Despite significant barriers to the success, rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and a variety of other primate species (including, of course, humans) have mastered the skills necessary for testing in this paradigm. Previous experiments have illustrated the utility of the test system for addressing questions of learning, memory, attention, perception, and motivation. Additional data have been reported to support the contention that the Language Research Center's Computerized Test System (LRC-CTS) serves its other raison d'etre--providing environmental enrichment and assessing psychological well-being. This paper is designed to augment previous descriptions of the technology and the paradigm for scientists and caretakers interested in environmental enrichment and performance assessment with primates.

Human reproductive issues in space

Animal studies in space or analogous environments have suggested that there may be problems in the reproductive sphere; such factors might limit mankind's ability to live and work for extended periods of time in microgravity or on non-terrestrial planetary surfaces. A review of reproductive functioning in animal species studied during space flight demonstrated that most species were affected significantly by the absence of gravity and/or the presence of radiation. These two factors induced alterations in normal reproductive functioning independently of, as well as in combination with, each other. Based on animal models, we have identified several potential problem areas regarding human reproductive physiology and functioning in the space environment. While there are no current space flight investigations, the animal studies suggest priorities for future research in human reproduction. Such studies will be critical for the successful colonization of the space frontier.

Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) complex learning skills reassessed

Results from three experiments on basic learning and transfer in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) are reported in which fully automated testing paradigms, afforded by the Language Research Center's Computerized Test System (LRC-CTS), were employed. Performance levels for discrimination learning set, transfer index, and mediational-learning testing were uniformly higher than was predicted from the literature, in contrast to previous reports of compromised learning under similar conditions (automated apparatus, planimetric stimuli, spatial discontiguity between stimuli and response loci). Analyses reveal relatively advanced learning set performance, transfer-index ratios, and positive transfer of learning even at stringent criterion levels. Moreover, the data suggest that rhesus monkeys tested in these experiments exhibit mediational instead of associative learning strategies, as do great apes and in contrast to previous reports of rhesus learning. We argue that the LRC-CTS enhances learning by nonhuman primate subjects, obviating those factors, reported in the literature from experiments in which manual or other automated systems were employed, that compromise learning.

Does CRM training work?

Formal cockpit resource management training in crew coordination concepts increases the percentage of crews rated as above average in performance and decreases the percentage of crews rated as below average.

The structure of cockpit management attitudes

A revised version of the Cockpit Management Attitudes Questionnaire (CMAQ) is introduced. Factor analyses of responses from 3 different samples reveal comparable factor structure (previous attempts to factor analyze this measure had produced equivocal results). Implications for the measurement of attitudes and the assessment of attitude change are discussed. It is argued that the CMAQ will benefit both special training programs and efforts to explore attitude-performance linkages in air-transport operations.

Human factors in spacecraft design

This paper describes some of the salient implications of evolving mission parameters for spacecraft design. Among the requirements for future spacecraft are new, higher standards of living, increased support of human productivity, and greater accommodation of physical and cultural variability. Design issues include volumetric allowances, architecture and layouts, closed life support systems, health maintenance systems, recreational facilities, automation, privacy, and decor. An understanding of behavioral responses to design elements is a precondition for critical design decisions. Human factors research results must be taken into account early in the course of the design process.

Psychological health maintenance on Space Station Freedom

The scheduling of crew rotations for up to 180 days on Space Station Freedom presents a special challenge for behavioral scientists who are tasked with providing psychological support for the crews, their families, and mission flight controllers. Preflight psychological support planning may minimize the negative impact of psychological and social issues on mission success, as well as assist NASA management in making real-time mission planning decisions in the event of a significant social event (for example, the death of a family member). During flight, the combined psychological, emotional, and social stressors on the astronauts must be monitored, along with other aspects of their health. The Health Maintenance Facility (HMF) will have the capability of providing preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic assistance for significant psychiatric and interpersonal problems which may develop. Psychological support will not end with the termination of the mission. Mental health professionals must be part of the team of medical personnel whose job will be to facilitate the transition--physical and mental--from the space environment back to planet Earth. This paper reviews each phase of mission planning for Space Station Freedom and specifies those factors that may be critical for psychological health maintenance on extended-duration space missions.

How effective is cockpit resource management training? Exploring issues in evaluating the impact of programs to enhance crew coordination

The question "Is cockpit resource management effective?" has been asked frequently in the years since 1979 when a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)/Industry workshop addressed the concepts of crew coordination and effective utilization of all available resources in flight operations (Cooper, White, & Lauber, 1980). If one looks at the proliferation of cockpit resource management (CRM) training programs in domestic and foreign, civil and military aviation, and the enormous investment in time and money that they entail, it would appear that the question has been answered in the affirmative. It is our position, however, that the question remains open and that empirical evidence is just beginning to accumulate.

Voice reaction times with recognition for Commodore computers

Hardware and software modifications are presented that allow for collection and recognition by a Commodore computer of spoken responses. Responses are timed with millisecond accuracy and automatically analyzed and scored. Accuracy data for this device from several experiments are presented. Potential applications and suggestions for improving recognition accuracy are also discussed.