Hormetic and regulatory effects of lipid peroxidation mediators in pancreatic beta cells

Nutrient sensing mechanisms of carbohydrates, amino acids and lipids operate distinct pathways that are essential for the adaptation to varying metabolic conditions. The role of nutrient-induced biosynthesis of hormones is paramount for attaining metabolic homeostasis in the organism. Nutrient overload attenuate key metabolic cellular functions and interfere with hormonal-regulated inter- and intra-organ communication, which may ultimately lead to metabolic derangements. Hyperglycemia and high levels of saturated free fatty acids induce excessive production of oxygen free radicals in tissues and cells. This phenomenon, which is accentuated in both type-1 and type-2 diabetic patients, has been associated with the development of impaired glucose tolerance and the etiology of peripheral complications. However, low levels of the same free radicals also induce hormetic responses that protect cells against deleterious effects of the same radicals. Of interest is the role of hydroxyl radicals in initiating peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and generation of α,β-unsaturated reactive 4-hydroxyalkenals that avidly form covalent adducts with nucleophilic moieties in proteins, phospholipids and nucleic acids. Numerous studies have linked the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxy-2E-nonenal (4-HNE) to different pathological and cytotoxic processes. Similarly, two other members of the family, 4-hydroxyl-2E-hexenal (4-HHE) and 4-hydroxy-2E,6Z-dodecadienal (4-HDDE), have also been identified as potential cytotoxic agents. It has been suggested that 4-HNE-induced modifications in macromolecules in cells may alter their cellular functions and modify signaling properties. Yet, it has also been acknowledged that these bioactive aldehydes also function as signaling molecules that directly modify cell functions in a hormetic fashion to enable cells adapt to various stressful stimuli. Recent studies have shown that 4-HNE and 4-HDDE, which activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) in vascular endothelial cells and insulin secreting beta cells, promote such adaptive responses to ameliorate detrimental effects of high glucose and diabetes-like conditions. In addition, due to the electrophilic nature of these reactive aldehydes they form covalent adducts with electronegative moieties in proteins, phosphatidylethanolamine and nucleotides. Normally these non-enzymatic modifications are maintained below the cytotoxic range due to efficient cellular neutralization processes of 4-hydroxyalkenals. The major neutralizing enzymes include fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase (FALDH), aldose reductase (AR) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), which transform the aldehyde to the corresponding carboxylic acid or alcohols, respectively, or by biding to the thiol group in glutathione (GSH) by the action of glutathione-S-transferase (GST). This review describes the hormetic and cytotoxic roles of oxygen free radicals and 4-hydroxyalkenals in beta cells exposed to nutritional challenges and the cellular mechanisms they employ to maintain their level at functional range below the cytotoxic threshold.

Pharmacological inhibition of eicosanoids and platelet-activating factor signaling impairs zymosan-induced release of IL-23 by dendritic cells

The engagement of the receptors for fungal patterns induces the expression of cytokines, the release of arachidonic acid, and the production of PGE2 in human dendritic cells (DC), but few data are available about other lipid mediators that may modulate DC function. The combined antagonism of leukotriene (LT) B4, cysteinyl-LT, and platelet-activating factor (PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) inhibited IL23A mRNA expression in response to the fungal surrogate zymosan and to a lower extent TNFA (tumor necrosis factor-α) and CSF2 (granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor) mRNA. The combination of lipid mediators and the lipid extract of zymosan-conditioned medium increased the induction of IL23A by LPS (bacterial lipopolysaccharide), thus suggesting that unlike LPS, zymosan elicits the production of mediators at a concentration enough for optimal response. Zymosan induced the release of LTB4, LTE4, 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE), and PAF C16:0. DC showed a high expression and detectable Ser663 phosphorylation of 5-lipoxygenase in response to zymosan, and a high expression and activity of LPCAT1/2 (lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 1 and 2), the enzymes that incorporate acetate from acetyl-CoA into choline-containing lysophospholipids to produce PAF. Pharmacological modulation of the arachidonic acid cascade and the PAF receptor inhibited the binding of P-71Thr-ATF2 (activating transcription factor 2) to the IL23A promoter, thus mirroring their effects on the expression of IL23A mRNA and IL-23 protein. These results indicate that LTB4, cysteinyl-LT, and PAF, acting through their cognate G protein-coupled receptors, contribute to the phosphorylation of ATF2 and play a central role in IL23A promoter trans-activation and the cytokine signature induced by fungal patterns.