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Zebrowitz E, Aslanukov A, Kajikawa T, Bedelbaeva K, Bollinger S, Zhang Y, Sarfatti D, Cheng J, Messersmith PB, Hajishengallis G, Heber-Katz E. Prolyl-hydroxylase inhibitor-induced regeneration of alveolar bone and soft tissue in a mouse model of periodontitis through metabolic reprogramming. Front Dent Med 2022; 3:992722. [PMID: 37641630 PMCID: PMC10462383 DOI: 10.3389/fdmed.2022.992722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone injuries and fractures reliably heal through a process of regeneration with restoration to original structure and function when the gap between adjacent sides of a fracture site is small. However, when there is significant volumetric loss of bone, bone regeneration usually does not occur. In the present studies, we explore a particular case of volumetric bone loss in a mouse model of human periodontal disease (PD) in which alveolar bone surrounding teeth is permanently lost and not replaced. This model employs the placement a ligature around the upper second molar for 10 days leading to inflammation and bone breakdown and faithfully replicates the bacterially-induced inflammatory etiology of human PD to induce bone degeneration. After ligature removal, mice are treated with a timed-release formulation of a small molecule inhibitor of prolylhydroxylases (PHDi; 1,4-DPCA) previously shown to induce epimorphic regeneration of soft tissue in non-regenerating mice. This PHDi induces high expression of HIF-1α and is able to shift the metabolic state from OXPHOS to aerobic glycolysis, an energetic state used by stem cells and embryonic tissue. This regenerative response was completely blocked by siHIF1a. In these studies, we show that timed-release 1,4-DPCA rapidly and completely restores PD-affected bone and soft tissue with normal anatomic fidelity and with increased stem cell markers due to site-specific stem cell migration and/or de-differentiation of local tissue, periodontal ligament (PDL) cell proliferation, and increased vascularization. In-vitro studies using gingival tissue show that 1,4-DPCA indeed induces de-differentiation and the expression of stem cell markers but does not exclude the role of migrating stem cells. Evidence of metabolic reprogramming is seen by the expression of not only HIF-1a, its gene targets, and resultant de-differentiation markers, but also the metabolic genes Glut-1, Gapdh, Pdk1, Pgk1 and Ldh-a in jaw periodontal tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elan Zebrowitz
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Current address: New York Medical College, 40 Sunshine Cottage Rd, Valhalla New York, United States of America
| | - Azamat Aslanukov
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Tetsuhiro Kajikawa
- University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine, Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Kamila Bedelbaeva
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Sam Bollinger
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Current address: Cancer Biology Graduate Group, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Yong Zhang
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Current address: Rockland Immunochemicals, Inc., Limerick, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - David Sarfatti
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jing Cheng
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Current address: Alcon Laboratories, 11460 Johns Creek Pkwy, Duluth, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Phillip B. Messersmith
- Department of Bioengineering and Materials Science and Engineering, UC Berkeley, Berkeley California, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - George Hajishengallis
- University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine, Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ellen Heber-Katz
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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Cienfuegos-Pecina E, Moreno-Peña DP, Torres-González L, Rodríguez-Rodríguez DR, Garza-Villarreal D, Mendoza-Hernández OH, Flores-Cantú RA, Samaniego Sáenz BA, Alarcon-Galvan G, Muñoz-Espinosa LE, Ibarra-Rivera TR, Saucedo AL, Cordero-Pérez P. Treatment with sodium ( S)-2-hydroxyglutarate prevents liver injury in an ischemia-reperfusion model in female Wistar rats. PeerJ 2021; 9:e12426. [PMID: 34824916 PMCID: PMC8592047 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury is one of the leading causes of early graft dysfunction in liver transplantation. Techniques such as ischemic preconditioning protect the graft through the activation of the hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF), which are downregulated by the EGLN family of prolyl-4-hydroxylases, a potential biological target for the development of strategies based on pharmacological preconditioning. For that reason, this study aims to evaluate the effect of the EGLN inhibitor sodium (S)-2-hydroxyglutarate [(S)-2HG] on liver IR injury in Wistar rats. Methods Twenty-eight female Wistar rats were divided into the following groups: sham (SH, n = 7), non-toxicity (HGTox, n = 7, 25 mg/kg of (S)-2HG, twice per day for two days), IR (n = 7, total liver ischemia: 20 minutes, reperfusion: 60 minutes), and (S)-2HG+IR (HGIR, n = 7, 25 mg/kg of (S)-2HG, twice per day for two days, total liver ischemia as the IR group). Serum ALT, AST, LDH, ALP, glucose, and total bilirubin were assessed. The concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF, malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase were measured in liver tissue, as well as the expression of Hmox1, Vegfa, and Pdk1, determined by RT-qPCR. Sections of liver tissue were evaluated histologically, assessing the severity of necrosis, sinusoidal congestion, and cytoplasmatic vacuolization. Results The administration of (S)-2HG did not cause any alteration in the assessed biochemical markers compared to SH. Preconditioning with (S)-2HG significantly ameliorated IR injury in the HGIR group, decreasing the serum activities of ALT, AST, and LDH, and the tissue concentrations of IL-1β and IL-6 compared to the IR group. IR injury decreased serum glucose compared to SH. There were no differences in the other biomarkers assessed. The treatment with (S)-2HG tended to decrease the severity of hepatocyte necrosis and sinusoidal congestion compared to the IR group. The administration of (S)-2HG did not affect the expression of Hmox1 but decreased the expression of both Vegfa and Pdk1 compared to the SH group, suggesting that the HIF-1 pathway is not involved in its mechanism of hepatoprotection. In conclusion, (S)-2HG showed a hepatoprotective effect, decreasing the levels of liver injury and inflammation biomarkers, without evidence of the involvement of the HIF-1 pathway. No hepatotoxic effect was observed at the tested dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Cienfuegos-Pecina
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico.,Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Blood Bank, Department of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Diana P Moreno-Peña
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Liliana Torres-González
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Diana Raquel Rodríguez-Rodríguez
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Diana Garza-Villarreal
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Oscar H Mendoza-Hernández
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Raul Alejandro Flores-Cantú
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Brenda Alejandra Samaniego Sáenz
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Gabriela Alarcon-Galvan
- Universidad de Monterrey, Basic Science Department, School of Medicine, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Linda E Muñoz-Espinosa
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Tannya R Ibarra-Rivera
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Department of Analytical Chemistry, School of Medicine, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Alma L Saucedo
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Department of Analytical Chemistry, School of Medicine, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Paula Cordero-Pérez
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital "Dr. José E. González", Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
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Zhang D, Wang Y, Li G, Zhang B. Tanshinone IIA alleviates vitiligo by suppressing AKT mediated CD8 + T cells activation in a mouse model. Dermatol Ther 2021; 34:e15086. [PMID: 34350676 DOI: 10.1111/dth.15086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tanshinone IIA has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects, while it is not clear whether Tanshinone IIA has protective role in vitiligo. Premelanosome (PMEL) CD8+ T cells were adoptive transferred into Krt14- Kitl* mice with Kit ligand (KITL) over-expressed, to construct the vitiligo model. Pdk1fl/fl and Stat3fl/fl mice were crossed with Cd8cre mice to establish Pdk1TKO and Stat3TKO mice. Tanshinone IIA (200 μg) was intravenous injected to treat vitiligo in mice every 3 days. The accumulation of macrophages and CD8+ T cells in the ear skin was assayed by flow cytometry. Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were induced and stimulated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and IL-4. It was found that Tanshinone IIA alleviated the development of vitiligo, impaired PMEL CD8+ T cells accumulation in the ear skin, and inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β expression and secretion in BMDMs, which could also inhibit IL-4-induced Arg-1 and Mrc-1 expression in BMDMs. In addition, Tanshinone IIA could inhibit the proliferation and cytotoxic function of CD8+ T cells indicated by the expression of Perforin, Granzymeb, and IFN-γ. Furthermore, Tanshinone IIA treated Pdk1TKO mice, not Stat3TKO mice, showed impaired PMEL CD8+ T cells accumulation in the ear skin. In summary, Tanshinone IIA alleviates vitiligo development with impaired CD8+ T cells accumulation and activation of Pdk1-Akt pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yujie Wang
- Yidu Central Hospital of Weifang, Qingzhou, China
| | - Guangzhi Li
- Yidu Central Hospital of Weifang, Qingzhou, China
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Abstract
In obese adipose tissue, Toll-like receptor signaling in macrophages leads to insulin resistance in adipocytes. Similarly, Toll signaling in the Drosophila larval fat body blocks insulin-dependent growth and nutrient storage. We find that Toll acts cell autonomously to block growth but not PI(3,4,5)P3 production in fat body cells expressing constitutively active PI3K. Fat body Toll signaling blocks whole-animal growth in rictor mutants lacking TORC2 activity, but not in larvae lacking Pdk1. Phosphorylation of Akt on the Pdk1 site, Thr342, is significantly reduced by Toll signaling, and expression of mutant AktT342D rescues cell and animal growth, nutrient storage, and viability in animals with active Toll signaling. Altogether, these data show that innate immune signaling blocks insulin signaling at a more distal level than previously appreciated, and they suggest that manipulations affecting the Pdk1 arm of the pathway may have profound effects on insulin sensitivity in inflamed tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen W Roth
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Moshe D Bitterman
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Morris J Birnbaum
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Michelle L Bland
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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Chen K, Lin G, Haelterman NA, Ho TSY, Li T, Li Z, Duraine L, Graham BH, Jaiswal M, Yamamoto S, Rasband MN, Bellen HJ. Loss of Frataxin induces iron toxicity, sphingolipid synthesis, and Pdk1/Mef2 activation, leading to neurodegeneration. eLife 2016; 5:e16043. [PMID: 27343351 PMCID: PMC4956409 DOI: 10.7554/elife.16043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in Frataxin (FXN) cause Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA), a recessive neurodegenerative disorder. Previous studies have proposed that loss of FXN causes mitochondrial dysfunction, which triggers elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and leads to the demise of neurons. Here we describe a ROS independent mechanism that contributes to neurodegeneration in fly FXN mutants. We show that loss of frataxin homolog (fh) in Drosophila leads to iron toxicity, which in turn induces sphingolipid synthesis and ectopically activates 3-phosphoinositide dependent protein kinase-1 (Pdk1) and myocyte enhancer factor-2 (Mef2). Dampening iron toxicity, inhibiting sphingolipid synthesis by Myriocin, or reducing Pdk1 or Mef2 levels, all effectively suppress neurodegeneration in fh mutants. Moreover, increasing dihydrosphingosine activates Mef2 activity through PDK1 in mammalian neuronal cell line suggesting that the mechanisms are evolutionarily conserved. Our results indicate that an iron/sphingolipid/Pdk1/Mef2 pathway may play a role in FRDA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuchuan Chen
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Guang Lin
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Nele A Haelterman
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Tammy Szu-Yu Ho
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Tongchao Li
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Zhihong Li
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Lita Duraine
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Brett H Graham
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Manish Jaiswal
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Shinya Yamamoto
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, United States
| | - Matthew N Rasband
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Hugo J Bellen
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, United States
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Nezami BG, Mwangi SM, Lee JE, Jeppsson S, Anitha M, Yarandi SS, Farris AB, Srinivasan S. MicroRNA 375 mediates palmitate-induced enteric neuronal damage and high-fat diet-induced delayed intestinal transit in mice. Gastroenterology 2014; 146:473-83.e3. [PMID: 24507550 PMCID: PMC3920196 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.10.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS A high-fat diet (HFD) can cause serious health problems, including alteration of gastrointestinal transit, the exact mechanism of which is not clear. Several microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in energy homeostasis, lipid metabolism, and HFD-induced weight gain. We investigated the role of miRNAs in HFD-induced damage to the enteric nervous system. METHODS Male mice were fed a HFD (60% calories from fat) or regular diets (18% calories from fat) for 11 weeks. Mice on regular diets and HFDs were given intraperitoneal injections of Mir375 inhibitor or a negative control. Body weights, food intake, stool indices, and gastrointestinal transit (following Evans blue gavage) were measured. An enteric neuronal cell line (immorto-fetal enteric neuronal) and primary enteric neurons were used for in vitro studies. RESULTS HFD delayed intestinal transit, which was associated with increased apoptosis and loss of colonic myenteric neurons. Mice fed a low-palmitate HFD did not develop a similar phenotype. Palmitate caused apoptosis of enteric neuronal cells associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Palmitate significantly increased the expression of Mir375 in vitro; transfection of cells with a Mir375 inhibitor prevented the palmitate-induced enteric neuronal cell apoptosis. Mir375 expression was increased in myenteric ganglia of mice fed HFD and associated with decreased levels of Mir375 target messenger RNAs, including Pdk1. Systemic injection of a Mir375 inhibitor for 5 weeks prevented HFD-induced delay in intestinal transit and morphologic changes. CONCLUSIONS HFDs delay colonic transit, partly by inducing apoptosis in enteric neuronal cells. This effect is mediated by Mir375 and is associated with reduced levels of Pdk1. Mir375 might be targeted to increase survival of enteric neurons and gastrointestinal motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behtash Ghazi Nezami
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta & Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Simon M. Mwangi
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta & Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Jai Eun Lee
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta & Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Sabrina Jeppsson
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta & Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Mallappa Anitha
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta & Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Shadi S. Yarandi
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta & Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Alton B Farris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Shanthi Srinivasan
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia.
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Yung HW, Hemberger M, Watson ED, Senner CE, Jones CP, Kaufman RJ, Charnock-Jones DS, Burton GJ. Endoplasmic reticulum stress disrupts placental morphogenesis: implications for human intrauterine growth restriction. J Pathol 2012; 228:554-64. [PMID: 22733590 PMCID: PMC3532660 DOI: 10.1002/path.4068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We recently reported the first evidence of placental endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the pathophysiology of human intrauterine growth restriction. Here, we used a mouse model to investigate potential underlying mechanisms. Eif2s1tm1RjK mice, in which Ser51 of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 subunit alpha (eIF2α) is mutated, display a 30% increase in basal translation. In Eif2s1tm1RjK placentas, we observed increased ER stress and anomalous accumulation of glycoproteins in the endocrine junctional zone (Jz), but not in the labyrinthine zone where physiological exchange occurs. Placental and fetal weights were reduced by 15% (97 mg to 82 mg, p < 0.001) and 20% (1009 mg to 798 mg, p < 0.001), respectively. To investigate whether ER stress affects bioactivity of secreted proteins, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) were derived from Eif2s1tm1RjK mutants. These MEFs exhibited ER stress, grew 50% slower, and showed reduced Akt–mTOR signalling compared to wild-type cells. Conditioned medium (CM) derived from Eif2s1tm1RjK MEFs failed to maintain trophoblast stem cells in a progenitor state, but the effect could be rescued by exogenous application of FGF4 and heparin. In addition, ER stress promoted accumulation of pro-Igf2 with altered glycosylation in the CM without affecting cellular levels, indicating that the protein failed to be processed after release. Igf2 is the major growth factor for placental development; indeed, activity in the Pdk1–Akt–mTOR pathways was decreased in Eif2s1tm1RjK placentas, indicating loss of Igf2 signalling. Furthermore, we observed premature differentiation of trophoblast progenitors at E9.5 in mutant placentas, consistent with the in vitro results and with the disproportionate development of the labyrinth and Jz seen in placentas at E18.5. Similar disproportion has been reported in the Igf2-null mouse. These results demonstrate that ER stress adversely affects placental development, and that modulation of post-translational processing, and hence bioactivity, of secreted growth factors contributes to this effect. Placental dysmorphogenesis potentially affects fetal growth through reduced exchange capacity. Copyright © 2012 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wa Yung
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
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