1
|
Curto E, Araujo H. An Experimental Assessment of Depth Estimation in Transparent and Translucent Scenes for Intel RealSense D415, SR305 and L515. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22197378. [PMID: 36236472 PMCID: PMC9572012 DOI: 10.3390/s22197378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
RGB-D cameras have become common in many research fields since these inexpensive devices provide dense 3D information from the observed scene. Over the past few years, the RealSense™ range from Intel® has introduced new, cost-effective RGB-D sensors with different technologies, more sophisticated in both hardware and software. Models D415, SR305, and L515 are examples of successful cameras launched by Intel® RealSense™ between 2018 and 2020. These three cameras are different since they have distinct operating principles. Then, their behavior concerning depth estimation while in the presence of many error sources will also be specific. For instance, semi-transparent and scattering media are expected error sources for an RGB-D sensor. The main new contribution of this paper is a full evaluation and comparison between the three Intel RealSense cameras in scenarios with transparency and translucency. We propose an experimental setup involving an aquarium and liquids. The evaluation, based on repeatability/precision and statistical distribution of the acquired depth, allows us to compare the three cameras and conclude that Intel RealSense D415 has overall the best behavior namely in what concerns the statistical variability (also known as precision or repeatability) and also in what concerns valid measurements.
Collapse
|
2
|
El Bouazzaoui I, Rodriguez S, Vincke B, El Ouardi A. Indoor visual SLAM dataset with various acquisition modalities. Data Brief 2021; 39:107496. [PMID: 34746344 PMCID: PMC8552193 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2021.107496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The indoor Visual Simultaneous Localization And Mapping (V-SLAM) dataset with various acquisition modalities has been created to evaluate the impact of acquisition modalities on the Visual SLAM algorithm's accuracy. The dataset contains different sequences acquired with different modalities, including RGB, IR, and depth images in passive stereo and active stereo modes. Each sequence is associated with a reference trajectory constructed with an Structure From Motion (SFM) and Multi View Stereo (MVS) library for comparison. Data were collected using an intrinsically calibrated Intel RealSense D435i camera. The RGB/IR and depth data are spatially aligned, and the stereo images are rectified. The dataset includes various areas, some with low brightness, with changes in brightness, wide, narrow and texture.
Collapse
|
3
|
Ramos WC, Beange KHE, Graham RB. Concurrent validity of a custom computer vision algorithm for measuring lumbar spine motion from RGB-D camera depth data. Med Eng Phys 2021; 96:22-28. [PMID: 34565549 DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2021.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Using RGB-D cameras as an alternative motion capture device can be advantageous for biomechanical spine motion assessments of movement quality and dysfunction due to their lower cost and complexity. In this study, we evaluated RGB-D camera performance relative to gold-standard optoelectronic motion capture equipment. Twelve healthy young adults (6M, 6F) were recruited to perform repetitive spine flexion-extension, while wearing infrared reflective marker clusters placed over their T10-T12 spinous processes and sacrum, and motion capture data were recorded simultaneously by both systems. Custom computer vision algorithms were developed to extract spine angles from depth data. Root mean square error (RMSE) was calculated for continuous Euler angles, and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC2,1) were calculated between minimum and maximum angles and range of motion in all movement planes. RMSE was low (RMSE ≤ 2.05°) and reliability was good to excellent (0.849 ≤ ICC2,1 ≤ 0.979) across all movement planes. In conclusion, the proposed algorithm for tracking 3D lumbar spine motion during a sagittal movement task from one RGB-D camera is reliable in comparison to gold-standard motion tracking equipment. Future research will investigate accuracy and validity in a wider variety of movements, and will also investigate the development of novel methods to measure spine motion without using infrared reflective markers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wantuir C Ramos
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, 200 Lees Avenue, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Kristen H E Beange
- Department of Systems and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Design, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada; Ottawa-Carleton Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Ryan B Graham
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, 200 Lees Avenue, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; Ottawa-Carleton Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Albert JA, Owolabi V, Gebel A, Brahms CM, Granacher U, Arnrich B. Evaluation of the Pose Tracking Performance of the Azure Kinect and Kinect v2 for Gait Analysis in Comparison with a Gold Standard: A Pilot Study. Sensors (Basel). 2020;20. [PMID: 32911651 PMCID: PMC7571213 DOI: 10.3390/s20185104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Gait analysis is an important tool for the early detection of neurological diseases and for the assessment of risk of falling in elderly people. The availability of low-cost camera hardware on the market today and recent advances in Machine Learning enable a wide range of clinical and health-related applications, such as patient monitoring or exercise recognition at home. In this study, we evaluated the motion tracking performance of the latest generation of the Microsoft Kinect camera, Azure Kinect, compared to its predecessor Kinect v2 in terms of treadmill walking using a gold standard Vicon multi-camera motion capturing system and the 39 marker Plug-in Gait model. Five young and healthy subjects walked on a treadmill at three different velocities while data were recorded simultaneously with all three camera systems. An easy-to-administer camera calibration method developed here was used to spatially align the 3D skeleton data from both Kinect cameras and the Vicon system. With this calibration, the spatial agreement of joint positions between the two Kinect cameras and the reference system was evaluated. In addition, we compared the accuracy of certain spatio-temporal gait parameters, i.e., step length, step time, step width, and stride time calculated from the Kinect data, with the gold standard system. Our results showed that the improved hardware and the motion tracking algorithm of the Azure Kinect camera led to a significantly higher accuracy of the spatial gait parameters than the predecessor Kinect v2, while no significant differences were found between the temporal parameters. Furthermore, we explain in detail how this experimental setup could be used to continuously monitor the progress during gait rehabilitation in older people.
Collapse
|
5
|
Garcia-Salguero M, Gonzalez-Jimenez J, Moreno FA. Human 3D Pose Estimation with a Tilting Camera for Social Mobile Robot Interaction. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:s19224943. [PMID: 31766197 PMCID: PMC6891307 DOI: 10.3390/s19224943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Human-Robot interaction represents a cornerstone of mobile robotics, especially within the field of social robots. In this context, user localization becomes of crucial importance for the interaction. This work investigates the capabilities of wide field-of-view RGB cameras to estimate the 3D position and orientation (i.e., the pose) of a user in the environment. For that, we employ a social robot endowed with a fish-eye camera hosted in a tilting head and develop two complementary approaches: (1) a fast method relying on a single image that estimates the user pose from the detection of their feet and does not require either the robot or the user to remain static during the reconstruction; and (2) a method that takes some views of the scene while the camera is being tilted and does not need the feet to be visible. Due to the particular setup of the tilting camera, special equations for 3D reconstruction have been developed. In both approaches, a CNN-based skeleton detector (OpenPose) is employed to identify humans within the image. A set of experiments with real data validate our two proposed methods, yielding similar results than commercial RGB-D cameras while surpassing them in terms of coverage of the scene (wider FoV and longer range) and robustness to light conditions.
Collapse
|
6
|
Wang X, Habert S, Zu Berge CS, Fallavollita P, Navab N. Inverse visualization concept for RGB-D augmented C-arms. Comput Biol Med 2016; 77:135-47. [PMID: 27544070 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2016.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
X-ray is still the essential imaging for many minimally-invasive interventions. Overlaying X-ray images with an optical view of the surgery scene has been demonstrated to be an efficient way to reduce radiation exposure and surgery time. However, clinicians are recommended to place the X-ray source under the patient table while the optical view of the real scene must be captured from the top in order to see the patient, surgical tools, and the surgical site. With the help of a RGB-D (red-green-blue-depth) camera, which can measure depth in addition to color, the 3D model of the real scene is registered to the X-ray image. However, fusing two opposing viewpoints and visualizing them in the context of medical applications has never been attempted. In this paper, we propose first experiences of a novel inverse visualization technique for RGB-D augmented C-arms. A user study consisting of 16 participants demonstrated that our method shows a meaningful visualization with potential in providing clinicians multi-modal fused data in real-time during surgery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Wang
- School of Automation Science and Electrical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China; Computer Aided Medical Procedures, Technische Universität München, Germany.
| | - Severine Habert
- Computer Aided Medical Procedures, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | | | | | - Nassir Navab
- Computer Aided Medical Procedures, Technische Universität München, Germany; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gerós A, Horta R, Aguiar P. Facegram - Objective quantitative analysis in facial reconstructive surgery. J Biomed Inform 2016; 61:1-9. [PMID: 26994664 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbi.2016.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Evaluation of effectiveness in reconstructive plastic surgery has become an increasingly important asset in comparing and choosing the most suitable medical procedure to handle facial disfigurement. Unfortunately, traditional methods to assess the results of surgical interventions are mostly qualitative and lack information about movement dynamics. Along with this, the few existing methodologies tailored to objectively quantify surgery results are not practical in the medical field due to constraints in terms of cost, complexity and poor suitability to clinical environment. These limitations enforce an urgent need for the creation of a new system to quantify facial movement and allow for an easy interpretation by medical experts. With this in mind, we present here a novel method capable of quantitatively and objectively assess complex facial movements, using a set of morphological, static and dynamic measurements. For this purpose, RGB-D cameras are used to acquire both color and depth images, and a modified block matching algorithm, combining depth and color information, was developed to track the position of anatomical landmarks of interest. The algorithms are integrated into a user-friendly graphical interface and the analysis outcomes are organized into an innovative medical tool, named facegram. This system was developed in close collaboration with plastic surgeons and the methods were validated using control subjects and patients with facial paralysis. The system was shown to provide useful and detailed quantitative information (static and dynamic) making it an appropriate solution for objective quantitative characterization of facial movement in a clinical environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Gerós
- Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Portugal; i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Horta
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Maxillo-Facial Surgery, and Burn Unit of Hospital São João, Medical School, Porto, Portugal
| | - Paulo Aguiar
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Beyl T, Nicolai P, Comparetti MD, Raczkowsky J, De Momi E, Wörn H. Time-of-flight-assisted Kinect camera-based people detection for intuitive human robot cooperation in the surgical operating room. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg 2015; 11:1329-45. [PMID: 26567093 DOI: 10.1007/s11548-015-1318-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Scene supervision is a major tool to make medical robots safer and more intuitive. The paper shows an approach to efficiently use 3D cameras within the surgical operating room to enable for safe human robot interaction and action perception. Additionally the presented approach aims to make 3D camera-based scene supervision more reliable and accurate. METHODS A camera system composed of multiple Kinect and time-of-flight cameras has been designed, implemented and calibrated. Calibration and object detection as well as people tracking methods have been designed and evaluated. RESULTS The camera system shows a good registration accuracy of 0.05 m. The tracking of humans is reliable and accurate and has been evaluated in an experimental setup using operating clothing. The robot detection shows an error of around 0.04 m. CONCLUSIONS The robustness and accuracy of the approach allow for an integration into modern operating room. The data output can be used directly for situation and workflow detection as well as collision avoidance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Beyl
- Institute for Anthropomatics and Robotics (IAR), Intelligent Process Control and Robotics (IPR), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Philip Nicolai
- Institute for Anthropomatics and Robotics (IAR), Intelligent Process Control and Robotics (IPR), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Mirko D Comparetti
- NeuroEngineering and Medical Robotics Laboratory, Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Jörg Raczkowsky
- Institute for Anthropomatics and Robotics (IAR), Intelligent Process Control and Robotics (IPR), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Elena De Momi
- NeuroEngineering and Medical Robotics Laboratory, Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Heinz Wörn
- Institute for Anthropomatics and Robotics (IAR), Intelligent Process Control and Robotics (IPR), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| |
Collapse
|