The role of debridement in wound bed preparation in chronic wound: A narrative review

Objective

To provide an overview of the types of wound debridement and update the available scientific consensus on the effect of wound debridement.

Methods

The articles were searched through CINAHL, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Medline database for relevant articles on all types of wound debridement. Articles included were all systematic review on the effectiveness of wound debridement-related outcome, published within the year 2017 until Aug 2021, in English.

Results

A total of seven scientific articles had been selected for review out of 318 screened. The authors reviewed a total of 318 titles and abstracts related to wound debridement effectiveness. Seven articles that were selected were narratively reviewed by two authors. The findings of the review were organized into autolytic, enzymatic, sharp, surgical, biological, and mechanical debridement methods and includes the advantages and disadvantages of each. The author further explored on the role of wound debridement according to wound bed preparation model. Articles were synthesized and organized based on the authors, year, total studies included in the systematic review, study range of year, total sample, debridement method, wound types, and findings.

Conclusion

Maggot debridement therapy showed a consistent finding in terms of effectiveness in debriding chronic wounds. The newer debridement method includes hydro-surgery, low-frequency ultrasonic and enzymatic collagenase debridement were getting more attention due to faster wound bed preparation and less painful. However, these newer method of debridements showed inconclusive findings and the patient safety was not clearly defined. A higher level of review is warranted in the future study.

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Maggot debridement therapy (MDT) showed a consistent positive effect in treating chronic wounds.

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New debridement methods that gaining more attention includes hydro-surgery, low-frequency ultrasonic and enzymatic collagenase debridement.

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Newer debridement method reported faster wound bed preparation and deemed to be less pain.

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Patient safety was not clearly defined in these newer debridement methods.

Development and integration of a wound cleansing pathway into clinical practice

Wound bed preparation has come into sharper focus over the past decade, with strategies identified to improve wound condition. This article focuses on implementing a wound cleansing policy and measuring, through audits, how this change affected rates of wound infection. From 2016 onwards, the Skin Integrity Team at Doncaster and Bassetlaw Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust took steps to revise and improve wound care practices. This resulted in the introduction of a wound cleansing pathway incorporating a surfactant-based cleanser in place of saline, with subsequent staff training and other changes made to practice. This study details the steps taken to implement the new pathway, which brought a reduction in wound infections of 84.3% between 2017 and 2019.

Wound bed preparation: an overview

Wound bed preparation is the management of a wound in order to optimise healing and/or facilitate other therapeutic measures. It is the most pivotal step in healing wounds. Early referral to a specialist wound clinic can markedly improve the wound healing process. This overview will discuss the techniques involved in the preparation of the wound bed that will effectively accelerate the healing process. The process begins with a correct diagnosis of the wound and optimising the patient's medical condition. The TIMERS framework is discussed. Wound dressings, including the use of negative-pressure wound therapy, are discussed, along with debridement techniques and agents. The timing of wound intervention and evaluating progress will also be discussed, and wound bed preparation strategies will be included. There has been an added challenge of wound care in the community as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The present article provides an overview of how to prepare a wound bed in the community.

Negative pressure wound therapy with instillation and dwell time in the wound management of necrotizing fasciitis

OBJECTIVE

Recent literature has shown that negative pressure wound therapy with instillation and dwell time (NPWTi-d) is a valid method of managing complex wounds and gained increasingly wider interest due in part to the increasing complexity of wounds. The purpose of this case study was to obtain information on the profile of NPWTi-d in necrotizing fasciitis patients, investigate the role it play in wound bed preparation, length of hospital stay and number of debridement operations.

METHODS

NPWTi-d has been used in patients with necrotizing fasciitis with either normal saline or Prontosan® solution and complete the treatment were involved in the present study. Following aggressive surgical debridement, NPWTi-d was initiated by instilling solution with a set dwell time of 5-10 min, followed by continuous NPWT of -125 mm Hg for 3-5 h. The system was changed on a 3-5 days schedule until sufficient granulation tissue was evident. Patients received systemic antibiotics and underwent wound debridement as indicated. Data of wound bed preparation, length of hospital stay, duration of NPWTi-d therapy, number of surgical interventions were collected retrospectively from patient medical records.

RESULTS

A total of 32 patients with diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis received NPWTi-d were included. Granulation tissue was found to be sufficient in 9-16 days. The mean duration of NPWTi-d therapy was 12.5 days prior to wound closure by split-thickness autograft (n = 21), suture (n = 9), or flap transplantation (n = 2).Patients received NPWTi-d treatment over a period of 8-16 days. The mean length of hospitalization was 22.8 days. All wounds were successfully closed and no recurrence of infection or adverse event was observed during NPWTi-d treatment.

CONCLUSION

In these patients, NPWTi-d facilitates wound cleansing and wound bed preparation and offers the clinician an additional tool for the management of necrotizing fasciitis. Further well designed prospective investigations with low risk of bias are needed to confirm these findings in the future work.

[Long-term healing of a therapy-refractory venous leg ulcer after crural fasciectomy and split skin graft transplantation]

A 59-year-old obese woman had been suffering from a painful, chronic leg ulcer since 1986. We diagnosed a venous leg ulcer due to functional chronic venous insufficiency in the context of obesity per magna (dependency syndrome) and arthrogenic congestion syndrome due to immobility. Although a high ligation and stripping of the great saphenous vein and several so-called shave therapies with split skin transplantation after appropriate wound bed preparation had been previously performed, the wound persisted. In 2012, the patient wanted to amputate her leg because the course of wound healing was so refractory to therapy and she suffered from severe pain. As an alternative to amputation, we performed a crural fascietomy and, after a wound bed preparation with two cycles of negative pressure wound therapy, we covered the defect with a split skin graft using the mesh graft technique. The surgery could be performed without complications and the skin healed completely. At the current presentation 7 years after the intervention, complete healing of the previously therapy-refractory venous leg ulcer was shown despite the persistent obesity per magna and immobility. This case report shows that a crural fasciectomy should be considered, especially in the case of otherwise therapy-refractory courses of venous leg ulcers.

Identifying and managing wound infection in the community

A large proportion of community wound care consists of managing chronic wounds. Given the increasingly complex patient comorbidities, early identification and treatment of wound infection can impact greatly not only on wound healing but also on the patient physically, psychologically and socially. Identifying wound infection can be challenging for clinicians, particularly in the chronic wound where infection may not always present itself as it does in acute wounds. The management of infected wounds can be complicated. Managing multiple symptoms and recognising these as being due to infection is not always straightforward and relies on the practitioner's knowledge and skills. An understanding of more commonly used antimicrobial treatments and when to employ these is paramount in enabling the practitioner to provide care that is effective, evidence based and cost efficient.

Chronic wounds: the challenges of appropriate management

The immense burden imposed by chronic wounds-those persisting over 6 weeks despite active intervention-on patients and health services is well recognised. There are various reasons for why a wound fails to progress towards closure, and clinicians must investigate the underlying cause of wound chronicity, as this information guides the management of such wounds. The TIME framework (T=tissue; I=infection/inflammation; M=moisture balance; E=wound edges) is a useful tool for practitioners to systematically undertake wound assessment and product selection. This article discusses chronic wound management based on the TIME framework, examining the aspects to be considered when managing chronic wounds. It also describes the process of dressing selection for overcoming the various barriers to wound healing, specifically discussing the AQUACEL family of dressings.

Scleroderma skin ulcers definition, classification and treatment strategies our experience and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Skin ulcers (SU) are one of the most frequent manifestations of systemic sclerosis (SSc). SSc-SU are very painful, often persistent and recurrent; they may lead to marked impairment of patient's activities and quality of life. Despite their severe impact on the whole SSc patient's management, the proposed definition, classification criteria, and therapeutic strategies of SSc-SU are still controversial.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to elaborate a comprehensive proposal of definition, classification, and therapeutic strategy of SSc-SU on the basis of our long-term single center experience along with a careful revision of the world literature on the same topic.

METHODS

A series of 282 SSc patients (254 females and 28 males; 84% with limited and 16% diffuse cutaneous SSc; mean age of 51.5±13.9SD at SSc onset; mean follow-up 5.8±4.6SDyears) enrolled during the last decade at our Rheumatology Unit were retrospectively evaluated with specific attention to SSc-SU. The SSc-SU were classified in 5 subtypes according to prominent pathogenetic mechanism(s) and localization, namely 1. digital ulcers (DU) of the hands or feet, 2. SU on bony prominence, 3. SU on calcinosis, 4. SU of lower limbs, and 5. DU presenting with gangrene. This latter is a very harmful evolution of both DU of the hands and feet needing a differential diagnosis with critical limb ischemia.

RESULTS

During the follow up period, one or more episodes of SSc-SU were recorded in over half patients (156/282, 55%); skin lesions were often recurrent and difficult-to-heal because of local complications, mainly infections (67.3%), in some cases associated to osteomyelitis (19.2%), gangrene (16%), and/or amputation (11.5%). SSc-SU were significantly associated with lower patients' mean age at the disease onset (p=0.024), male gender (p=0.03), diffuse cutaneous subset (p=0.015), calcinosis (p=0.002), telangiectasia (p=0.008), melanodermia (p<0.001), abnormal PAPs (p=0.036), and/or altered inflammation reactant (CRP, p=0.001). Therapeutic strategy of SSc-SU included both systemic and local pharmacological treatments with particular attention to complicating infections and chronic/procedural pain, as well as a number of non-pharmacological measures. Integrated local treatments were often decisive for the SSc-SU healing; they were mainly based on the wound bed preparation principles that are summarized in the acronym TIME (necrotic Tissue, Infection/Inflammation, Moisture balance, and Epithelization). The updated review of the literature focusing on this challenging issue was analyzed in comparison with our experience.

CONCLUSIONS

The recent advancement of knowledge and management strategies of SSc-SU achieved during the last years lead to the clear-cut improvement of patients' quality of life and reduced long-term disability.

Wound bed preparation: TIME for an update

While the overwhelming majority of wounds heal rapidly, a significant proportion fail to progress through the wound-healing process. These resultant chronic wounds cause considerable morbidity and are costly to treat. Wound bed preparation, summarised by the TIME (Tissue, Inflammation/infection, Moisture imbalance, Epithelial edge advancement) concept, is a systematic approach for assessing chronic wounds. Each of these components needs to be addressed and optimised to improve the chances of successful wound closure. We present an up-to-date literature review of the most important recent aspects of wound bed preparation. While there are many novel therapies that are available to the treating clinician, often, there are limited data on which to assess their clinical value, and a lack of appreciation for adequate wound bed preparation needed before expensive therapy is used to heal a wound.

Topical use of citric acid for wound bed preparation

Wound bed preparation is the management of a wound in order to accelerate endogenous healing or to facilitate the effectiveness of split-skin grafting. The formation of a healthy wound bed is a prerequisite to the use of advanced wound care products. Unless this is achieved, even the most sophisticated and expensive materials are unlikely to function correctly. An attempt has been made to use 3% citric acid ointment for wound bed preparation to prepare wound for grafting in five cases of wounds with large raw areas infected with multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Wound infection: a knowledge deficit that needs addressing

A survey was undertaken at a recent large wound-care exhibition, aimed at generalist nurses, podiatrists and other allied health professionals, to ascertain delegates' understanding of wound infection and its treatment options. The sample comprised 116 delegates, although not all of them answered every question. Results showed good knowledge in some areas, with most (90%) correctly identifying the symptoms of localised wound infection and the characteristics of an infected wound (97%). However, the results did reveal some alarming gaps in knowledge, with 64% unable to identify that it is the inability of the host to mount a robust immune response that can tip the balance between colonisation and infection. Similarly, over a third (38%) incorrectly considered that wounds should always be cleansed, regardless of the wound characteristics, while 5% stated that antimicrobial dressings should be used continuously until epithelialisation occurs. The results suggest that there is still a worrying trend for ritualistic wound care and that more ongoing education is needed on the core aspects of wound management.

Negative pressure wound therapy as an adjunct in healing of chronic wounds

Negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) has emerged as a cutting-edge technology and provides an alternative solution to the problem of wounds. This study was undertaken to assess the efficacy of this technique in the treatment of chronic wounds. A prospective clinical study was used to evaluate our experience in use of NPWT in the healing of pressure ulcers and chronic wounds over 2 years. The primary end point of the study group was the time taken for appearance of healthy granulation tissue and full reepithelialisation without drainage. All patients with sepsis were excluded from the study. The statistical analysis of the data was carried out. Of the 60 patients studied, 41 had associated comorbidities including diabetes mellitus. The commonest site of occurrence was the lower limb. Coverage in the form of a flap was required at presentation in 63·33% of patients. However, after initiation of NPWT, none of them required the procedure and they healed spontaneously either by secondary intention or by skin grafting. The time taken for appearance of healthy granulation tissue was 14·36 ± 4·24 days. Complete healing of wounds occurred by 33·1 ± 10·22 days. There was a statistically significant difference in the volume of the wounds before and after the intervention (P = 0·000). Complications resulting from NPWT were minimal. This technique is an excellent adjunct to surgical debridement.

The Use of a Pure Native Collagen Dressing for Wound Bed Preparation Prior to Use of a Living Bi-layered Skin Substitute

Management of chronic wounds in the outpatient setting is quite challenging. The extensive co-morbid medical problems of the chronically ill patient along with the complexities of the wound bed and its biochemical environment has led to a plethora of patients with poor wound healing. This ever increasing population is a challenge for the wound care practitioner and cost to the health care system and patient. Increased wound chronicity has promulgated the use of advanced wound care products, including Living Skin Substitutes (LSS), in an attempt to obtain wound closure, and ultimately both physiological and functional healing.(1-3) In the outpatient setting, it is evident that the efficacy of the LSS varies widely depending on the patient type with some patients responding quite favorably while others who do not achieve healing despite repeated applications of LSS. This case series demonstrates that a systematic method of wound bed preparation prior to the application of LSS improved healing outcomes. The entire wound bed preparation protocol included autolytic, non-selective, and sharp-selective debridement, if deemed appropriate, followed by the weekly application of a pure native collagen. The wound bed preparation protocol was completed prior to LSS application. This case series presents evidence supporting the application of a 100% native collagen dressing to wound bed prior to the final step of LSS utilization.

Efficacy of shock wave therapy on chronic diabetic foot ulcer: a single-blinded randomized controlled clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) on the healing rate, wound surface area and wound bed preparation in chronic diabetic foot ulcers (DFU).

METHODS

Thirty eight patients with 45 chronic DFU were randomly assigned into; the ESWT-group (19 patients/24 ulcers) and the control-group (19 patients/21 ulcers). Blinded therapist measured wound surface area (WSA), the percentage of reduction in the WSA, rate of healing and wound bed preparation at baseline, after the end of the interventions (W8), and at 20-week follow-up (W20). The ESWT group received shock wave therapy twice per week for a total of eight treatments. Each ulcer was received ESWT at a frequency of 100 pulse/cm(2), and energy flux density of 0.11mJ/cm(2). All patients received standardized wound care consisting of debridement, blood-glucose control agents, and footwear modification for pressure reduction.

RESULTS

The overall clinical results showed completely healed ulcers in 33.3% and 54% in ESWT-groups and 14.28% and 28.5% in the control group after intervention (W8), and at follow-up (W20) respectively. The average healing time was significantly lower (64.5 ± 8.06 days vs 81.17 ± 4.35 days, p<0.05) in the ESWT-group compared with the control group.

CONCLUSION

ESWT-treated ulcers had a significant reduction in wound size and median time required for ulcer healing, with no adverse reactions. So, the ESWT is advocated as an adjunctive therapy in chronic diabetic wound.

Optimizing Wound Bed Preparation With Collagenase Enzymatic Debridement

Difficult-to-heal and chronic wounds affect tens of millions of people worldwide. In the U.S. alone, the direct cost for their treatment exceeds $25 billion. Yet despite advances in wound research and treatment that have markedly improved patient care, wound healing is often delayed for weeks or months. For venous and diabetic ulcers, complete wound closure is achieved in as few as 25%-50% of chronic or hard-to-heal wounds. Wound bed preparation and the consistent application of appropriate and effective debridement techniques are recommended for the optimized treatment of chronic wounds. The TIME paradigm (Tissue, Inflammation/infection, Moisture balance and Edge of wound) provides a model to remove barriers to healing and optimize the healing process. While we often think of debridement as an episodic event that occurs in specific care giver/patient interface. There is the possibility of a maintenance debridement in which the chronic application of a medication can assist in both the macroscopic and microscopic debridement of a wound. We review the various debridement therapies available to clinicians in the United States, and explore the characteristics and capabilities of clostridial collagenase ointment (CCO), a type of enzymatic debridement, that potentially allows for epithelialization while debriding. It appears that in the case of CCO it may exert this influences by removal of the necrotic plug while promoting granulation and sustaining epithelialization. It is also easily combined with other methods of debridement, is selective to necrotic tissue, and has been safely used in various populations. We review the body of evidence has indicated that this concept of maintenance debridement, especially when combined episodic debridement may add a cost an efficacious, safe and cost-effective choice for debridement of cutaneous ulcers and burn wounds and it will likely play an expanding role in all phases of wound bed preparation.

Wet-to-Dry Dressings Do Not Provide Moist Wound Healing

The purpose of this study was to determine if using advanced wound care dressings leads to improved outcomes as compared to wet-to-dry dressings. Based on a review of literature published in the last eight years, with the exception of one landmark article published in 2001, strong support was found that advanced wound care dressings improved outcomes when compared to wet-to-dry dressings. Some of the outcomes compared were healing time, pain, infection rates, and costs; several articles took it a step further stating that the use of wet-to-dry dressings is considered sub-standard practice. The articles provided evidence-based support for the use of moist wound healing.

Correction of Hypoxia, a Critical Element for Wound Bed Preparation Guidelines: TIMEO2 Principle of Wound Bed Preparation

Wound bed preparation is an organized approach to create an optimal environment for wound healing by the use of the most cost-effective therapeutic options. It has become an essential part of wound management and seeks to use the latest findings from molecular and cellular research to maximize the benefits of today's advanced wound care products. The international advisory panel on wound bed preparation met in 2002 to develop a systemic approach to wound management. These principles of this approach are referred to by the mnemonic TIME, which stands for the management of nonviable or deficient tissue (T), infection or inflammation (I), prolonged moisture imbalance (M), and nonadvancing or undermined epidermal edge (E). One critical element of pathophysiology, understanding of the hypoxic nature of the wound and correction of hypoxia as a critical element of wound bed preparation, is not covered. This article proposes to add correction of hypoxia to the TIME principle (TIMEO2 principle) based on the evidence. The evidence that will support the reason and the need for modification of the wound bed preparation protocol is discussed.