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Racey M, MacFarlane A, Carlson SE, Stark KD, Plourde M, Field CJ, Yates AA, Wells G, Grantham A, Bazinet RP, Ma DWL. Dietary Reference Intakes based on chronic disease endpoints: outcomes from a case study workshop for omega 3's EPA and DHA. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2021; 46:530-539. [PMID: 33583256 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Given the focus on developing Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) based on chronic disease risk reduction and recent research for omega-3 long chain PUFA since the last DRI review, the Canadian Nutrition Society convened a panel of stakeholders for a 1-day workshop in late 2019. Attendees discussed the new NASEM guidelines for establishing DRI values based on chronic disease risk endpoints and the strength of current evidence for EPA and DHA as it relates to the new guidelines. Novelty: Summarizes evidence and expert opinions regarding the potential for reviewing DRI values for EPA and DHA and cardiovascular disease risk and early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Racey
- School of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Amanda MacFarlane
- Bureau of Nutritional Sciences, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Susan E Carlson
- Department of Dietetics and Nutrition, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Ken D Stark
- Department of Kinesiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Mélanie Plourde
- Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Universitaire de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.,Centre de Recherche sur le Vieillissement, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et Services Sociaux de l'Estrie-Centre Hospitalier Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Catherine J Field
- Faculty of Agricultural, Life and Environmental Sciences, Department of Agricultural, Food & Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H5, Canada
| | - Allison A Yates
- Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, and USDA/ARS Beltsville (retired), Johnson City, TN 37615, USA
| | - George Wells
- Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada.,Cardiovascular Research Methods Centre, University of Ottawa Heart Institute, Ottawa, ON K1Y 4W7, Canada
| | - Andrea Grantham
- Canadian Nutrition Society, 867 La Chapelle Street, Ottawa, ON K1C 6A8, Canada
| | - Richard P Bazinet
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - David W L Ma
- Department of Human Health & Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
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Arsic A, Takic M, Kojadinovic M, Petrovic S, Paunovic M, Vucic V, Ristic Medic D. Metabolically healthy obesity: is there a link with polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and status? Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2020; 99:64-71. [PMID: 32822561 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2020-0317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare dietary intake and status of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids metabolically healthy and unhealthy, and obese and nonobese persons. Metabolic health status in 171 participants was defined according to criteria for metabolic syndrome. Obese and nonobese metabolically unhealthy persons (MUHO and MUHNO) had higher energy intake of n-6 PUFA (7.82 ± 1.03 and 7.49 ± 0.86) and lower intake of n-3 PUFA (0.60 ± 0.12 and 0.62 ± 0.11) compared to obese and nonobese metabolically healthy persons (MHO and MHNO) (5.92 ± 0.63 and 5.72 ± 0.67; 1.20 ± 0.07 and 1.22 ± 0.09, respectively) and a higher n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio. The plasma level of n-6 PUFA was lower in the MUHO and MUHNO groups (38.49 ± 3.71 and 38.53 ± 2.19) compared to MHNO (40.90 ± 2.43), while n-3 PUFA status was lower in obese than in nonobese persons (3.58 ± 0.79 and 3.50 ± 1.02 vs. 4.21 ± 0.80 and 4.06 ± 1.15). The MHO group had a higher eicosapentaenoic/arachidonic acid ratio and estimated desaturase (SCD16, D6D) and elongase activity in plasma phospholipids compared to MHNO. The low intake of n-3 PUFA is directly associated with metabolic risk factors. These results indicated that obesity is closely associated with low levels of n-3 PUFA in plasma phospholipids, suggesting that dietary modifications including n-3 PUFA supplementation appear to be suitable therapeutic strategy in obese persons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Arsic
- Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.,Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marija Takic
- Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.,Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milica Kojadinovic
- Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.,Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Snjezana Petrovic
- Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.,Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marija Paunovic
- Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.,Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vesna Vucic
- Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.,Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Danijela Ristic Medic
- Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.,Centre of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, National Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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Feltham BA, Louis XL, Kapourchali FR, Eskin MNA, Suh M. DHA supplementation during prenatal ethanol exposure alters the expression of fetal rat liver genes involved in oxidative stress regulation. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018; 44:744-750. [PMID: 30521352 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal ethanol (EtOH) exposure is known to induce adverse effects on fetal brain development. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been shown to alleviate these effects by up-regulating antioxidant mechanisms in the brain. The liver is the first organ to receive enriched blood after placental transport. Therefore, it could be negatively affected by EtOH, but no studies have assessed the effects of DHA on fetal liver. This study examined the effects of maternal DHA intake on DHA status and gene expression of key enzymes of the glutathione antioxidant system in the fetal liver after prenatal EtOH exposure. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley dams were intubated with EtOH for the first 10 days of pregnancy, while being fed a control or DHA-supplemented diet. Fetal livers were collected at gestational day 20, and free fatty acids and phospholipid profile, as well as glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx1) gene expressions, were assessed. Prenatal EtOH exposure increased fetal liver weight, whereas maternal DHA supplementation decreased fetal liver weight. DHA supplementation increased fetal liver free fatty acid and phospholipid DHA independently of EtOH. GR and GPx1 messenger RNA (mRNA) expressions were significantly increased and decreased, respectively, in the EtOH-exposed group compared with all other groups. Providing DHA normalized GR and GPx1 mRNA expression to control levels. This study shows that maternal DHA supplementation alters the expression of fetal liver genes involved in the glutathione antioxidative system during prenatal EtOH exposure. The fetal liver may play an important role in mitigating the signs and symptoms of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in affected offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley A Feltham
- a Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.,b Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders & Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Hospital Albrechtsen Research Centre, 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada
| | - Xavier L Louis
- a Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.,b Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders & Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Hospital Albrechtsen Research Centre, 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada
| | - Fatemeh Ramezani Kapourchali
- a Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.,b Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders & Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Hospital Albrechtsen Research Centre, 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada
| | - Michael N A Eskin
- a Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Miyoung Suh
- a Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.,b Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders & Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Hospital Albrechtsen Research Centre, 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada
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Abstract
Regulation of cardiac fatty acid metabolism is central to the development of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. We investigated the effects of select fatty acids on the expression of genes involved in immediate early as well as inflammatory and hypertrophic responses in adult rat cardiomyocytes. Cardiac remodeling begins with upregulation of immediate early genes for c-fos and c-jun, followed by upregulation of inflammatory genes for nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT). At later stages, genes involved in hypertrophic responses, such as atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), are upregulated. Adult rat cardiomyocytes were treated with palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid; oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid; linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid belonging to the n-6 class; and docosahexaenoic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid belonging to the n-3 class. Linoleic acid produced a greater increase in the mRNA expression of c-fos, c-jun, NF-κB, NFAT3, ANP, and BNP relative to palmitic acid and oleic acid. In contrast, docosahexaenoic acid caused a decrease in the expression of genes involved in cardiac hypertrophy. Our findings suggest that linoleic acid may be a potent inducer of genes involved in cardiac hypertrophy, whereas docosahexaenoic acid may be protective against the cardiomyocyte hypertrophic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukhinder K Cheema
- a Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Paramjit S Tappia
- b Asper Clinical Research Institute, St. Boniface Hospital, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada
| | - Naranjan S Dhalla
- c Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Manitoba, St. Boniface Hospital, Albrechtsen Research Centre, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada
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Mostafa AF, Samir SM, Nagib RM. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid and its role in exhaustive-exercise-induced changes in female rat ovulatory cycle. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2017; 96:395-403. [PMID: 28977777 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2017-0354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Exhaustive exercises can cause delayed menarche or menstrual cycle irregularities in females. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) are incorporated into a wide range of benefits in many physiological systems. Our work aimed to assess the role of ω-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on the deleterious effects of exhaustive exercise on the female reproductive system in rats. Virgin female rats were randomly divided into 4 groups (12 rats in each): control group, omega-3 group treated with DHA, exhaustive exercise group, and exhaustive exercised rats treated with DHA. Omega-3 was given orally to the rats once daily for 4 estrous cycles. Exhaustive exercises revealed lower levels in progesterone and gonadotropins together with histopathological decrease in number of growing follicles and corpora lutea. Moreover, the exercised rats showed low levels of ovarian antioxidants with high level of caspase-3 and plasma cortisol level that lead to disruption of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. ω-3 PUFA DHA has beneficial effects on the number of newly growing follicles in both sedentary and exercised rats with decreasing the level of caspase-3 and increasing the antioxidant activity in ovaries. Exhaustive exercises can cause ovulatory problems in female rats that can be improved by ω-3 supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abeer F Mostafa
- a Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Egypt
| | - Shereen M Samir
- a Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Egypt
| | - R M Nagib
- b Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Egypt
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Zöhrer E, Alisi A, Jahnel J, Mosca A, Della Corte C, Crudele A, Fauler G, Nobili V. Efficacy of docosahexaenoic acid-choline-vitamin E in paediatric NASH: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 42:948-954. [PMID: 28511023 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2016-0689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a progressive form of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, is one of the most common hepatic diseases in children. We conducted a randomized controlled clinical trial on children with biopsy-proven NASH based on a combinatorial nutritional approach compared with placebo. Participants were assigned to lifestyle modification plus placebo or lifestyle modification plus a mix containing docosahexaenoic acid, choline, and vitamin E (DHA-CHO-VE). Forty children and adolescents participated in the entire trial. The primary outcome was the improvement of liver hyperechogenicity. Secondary outcomes included alterations of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and other metabolic parameters. Furthermore, changes of serum bile acids (BA) and plasma fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) levels were evaluated as inverse biomarkers of disease severity. At the end of the study, we observed a significant decrease in severe steatosis in the treatment group (50% to 5%, p = 0.001). Furthermore, although the anthropometric and biochemical measurements in the placebo and DHA-CHO-VE groups were comparable at baseline, at the end of the study ALT and fasting glucose levels improved only in the treatment group. Finally, we found that BA levels were not influenced whereas FGF19 levels were significantly increased by DHA-CHO-VE. The results suggest that a combination of DHA, VE, and CHO could improve steatosis and reduce ALT and glucose levels in children with NASH. However, further studies are needed to assess the impact of a DHA and VE combination on repair of liver damage in paediatric NASH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Zöhrer
- a Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University Graz, Graz 8036, Austria
| | - Anna Alisi
- b Liver Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital - IRCCS, Rome 00165, Italy
| | - Jörg Jahnel
- a Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University Graz, Graz 8036, Austria
| | - Antonella Mosca
- c Hepato-Metabolic Disease Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital - IRCCS, Rome 00165, Italy
| | - Claudia Della Corte
- c Hepato-Metabolic Disease Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital - IRCCS, Rome 00165, Italy
| | - Annalisa Crudele
- b Liver Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital - IRCCS, Rome 00165, Italy
| | - Günter Fauler
- d Clinical Institute of Medical and Chemical Laboratory Diagnostics, Medical University Graz, Graz 8036, Austria
| | - Valerio Nobili
- b Liver Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital - IRCCS, Rome 00165, Italy.,c Hepato-Metabolic Disease Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital - IRCCS, Rome 00165, Italy
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Peoples GE, McLennan PL. Dietary fish oil delays hypoxic skeletal muscle fatigue and enhances caffeine-stimulated contractile recovery in the rat in vivo hindlimb. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 42:613-620. [PMID: 28177707 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2016-0501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Oxygen efficiency influences skeletal muscle contractile function during physiological hypoxia. Dietary fish oil, providing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), reduces the oxygen cost of muscle contraction. This study used an autologous perfused rat hindlimb model to examine the effects of a fish oil diet on skeletal muscle fatigue during an acute hypoxic challenge. Male Wistar rats were fed a diet rich in saturated fat (SF), long-chain (LC) n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFA), or LC n-3 PUFA DHA from fish oil (FO) (8 weeks). During anaesthetised and ventilated conditions (normoxia 21% O2 (SaO2-98%) and hypoxia 14% O2 (SaO2-89%)) the hindlimb was perfused at a constant flow and the gastrocnemius-plantaris-soleus muscle bundle was stimulated via sciatic nerve (2 Hz, 6-12V, 0.05 ms) to established fatigue. Caffeine (2.5, 5, 10 mM) was supplied to the contracting muscle bundle via the arterial cannula to assess force recovery. Hypoxia, independent of diet, attenuated maximal twitch tension (normoxia: 82 ± 8; hypoxia: 41 ± 2 g·g-1 tissue w.w.). However, rats fed FO sustained higher peak twitch tension compared with the SF and n-6 PUFA groups (P < 0.05), and the time to decline to 50% of maximum twitch tension was extended (SF: 546 ± 58; n-6 PUFA: 522 ± 58; FO: 792 ± 96 s; P < 0.05). In addition, caffeine-stimulated skeletal muscle contractile recovery was enhanced in the FO-fed animals (SF: 41 ± 3; n-6 PUFA: 40 ± 4; FO: 52 ± 7% recovery; P < 0.05). These results support a physiological role of DHA in skeletal muscle membranes when exposed to low-oxygen stress that is consistent with the attenuation of muscle fatigue under physiologically normoxic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory E Peoples
- School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, 2522, NSW, Australia.,School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, 2522, NSW, Australia
| | - Peter L McLennan
- School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, 2522, NSW, Australia.,School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, 2522, NSW, Australia
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Grimm MOW, Mett J, Stahlmann CP, Haupenthal VJ, Blümel T, Stötzel H, Grimm HS, Hartmann T. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase the degradation of amyloid-β by affecting insulin-degrading enzyme. Biochem Cell Biol 2016; 94:534-542. [PMID: 27813426 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2015-0149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been proposed to be highly beneficial in Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD pathology is closely linked to an overproduction and accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides as extracellular senile plaques in the brain. Total Aβ levels are not only dependent on its production by proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), but also on Aβ-clearance mechanisms, including Aβ-degrading enzymes. Here we show that the omega-3 PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) increase Aβ-degradation by affecting insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), the major Aβ-degrading enzyme secreted into the extracellular space of neuronal and microglial cells. The identification of the molecular mechanisms revealed that EPA directly increases IDE enzyme activity and elevates gene expression of IDE. DHA also directly stimulates IDE enzyme activity and affects IDE sorting by increasing exosome release of IDE, resulting in enhanced Aβ-degradation in the extracellular milieu. Apart from the known positive effect of DHA in reducing Aβ production, EPA and DHA might ameliorate AD pathology by increasing Aβ turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus O W Grimm
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany.,b Neurodegeneration and Neurobiology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany.,c Deutsches Institut für DemenzPrävention (DIDP), Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Janine Mett
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Christoph P Stahlmann
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Viola J Haupenthal
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Tamara Blümel
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Hannah Stötzel
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Heike S Grimm
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Tobias Hartmann
- a Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany.,b Neurodegeneration and Neurobiology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany.,c Deutsches Institut für DemenzPrävention (DIDP), Saarland University, Kirrberger Str. 1, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
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