Valproic acid ameliorates cauda equina injury by suppressing HDAC2-mediated ferroptosis

INTRODUCTION

Persistent neuroinflammatory response after cauda equina injury (CEI) lowers nociceptor firing thresholds, accompanied by pathological pain and decreasing extremity dysfunction. Histone deacetylation has been considered a key regulator of immunity, inflammation, and neurological dysfunction. Our previous study suggested that valproic acid (VPA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, exhibited neuroprotective effects in rat models of CEI, although the underlying mechanism remains elusive.

METHODS

The cauda equina compression surgery was performed to establish the CEI model. The Basso, Beattie, Bresnahan score, and the von Frey filament test were carried out to measure the animal behavior. Immunofluorescence staining of myelin basic protein and GPX4 was carried out. In addition, transmission electron microscope analysis was used to assess the effect of VPA on the morphological changes of mitochondria. RNA-sequencing was conducted to clarify the underlying mechanism of VPA on CEI protection.

RESULTS

In this current study, we revealed that the expression level of HDAC1 and HDAC2 was elevated after cauda equina compression model but was reversed by VPA treatment. Meanwhile, HDAC2 knockdown resulted in the improvement of motor functions and pathologic pain, similar to treatment with VPA. Histology analysis also showed that knockdown of histone deacetylase (HDAC)-2, but not HDAC1, remarkably alleviated cauda equina injury and demyelinating lesions. The potential mechanism may be related to lowering oxidative stress and inflammatory response in the injured region. Notably, the transcriptome sequencing indicated that the therapeutic effect of VPA may depend on HDAC2-mediated ferroptosis. Ferroptosis-related genes were analyzed in vivo and DRG cells further validated the reliability of RNA-sequencing results, suggesting HDAC2-H4K12ac axis participated in epigenetic modulation of ferroptosis-related genes.

CONCLUSION

HDAC2 is critically involved in the ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in cauda equina injury, and VPA ameliorated cauda equina injury by suppressing HDAC2-mediated ferroptosis.

EMG characteristics of the external anal sphincter guarding reflex and effects of a unilateral ventral root avulsion injury in rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta)

The external anal sphincter (EAS) is important for the maintenance of bowel continence and may be compromised by a variety of neuropathic conditions. However, large animal models for the study of EAS functions have been sparse. The EAS guarding reflex was examined by electromyography (EMG) in neurologically intact rhesus macaques ( n = 6) and at 4-6 wk after a unilateral EAS denervation from an L6-S3 ventral root avulsion (VRA) injury ( n = 6). Baseline EAS EMG recordings were quiescent in all subjects, and evoked responses showed an initial large-amplitude EMG activity, which gradually returned to baseline within 1-2 min. At 4-6 wk postoperatively, the EAS guarding reflex showed a significantly reduced EMG response duration of 47 ± 15 s and area under the curve (AUC) of 0.198 ± 0.097 mV·s compared with the corresponding evoked EAS EMG duration of 102 ± 19 s and AUC of 0.803 ± 0.225 mV·s ( P < 0.05) in the control group. Detailed time- and frequency-domain analysis of the evoked EAS EMG responses for the first 40 s showed no difference between groups for the maximum amplitude but a significant decrease for the mean amplitude across the study period and an early AUC reduction for the first 10 s in the VRA injury group. Time-frequency analysis and power spectrum plots indicated decreased intensity and a narrower midrange of frequencies in the VRA injury group. We conclude that the EAS guarding reflex in rhesus macaques shows characteristic EMG features in control subjects and signs of partial target denervation after a unilateral L6-S3 VRA injury. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The external anal sphincter guarding reflex showed initial large-amplitude peaks and a gradual return to a quiescent baseline after a rectal probe stimulus in rhesus macaques. At 4-6 wk after a unilateral ventral root avulsion (VRA) injury, the electromyography duration, mean amplitude, and area under the curve measurements were decreased. Time-frequency analysis and power spectrum plots indicated decreased intensity and a narrowed midrange of frequencies in the VRA injury cohort.