Ion Pairs for Transdermal and Dermal Drug Delivery: A Review

Ion pairing is a strategy used to increase the permeation of topically applied ionised drugs. Formation occurs when the electrostatic energy of attraction between oppositely charged ions exceeds their mean thermal energy, making it possible for them to draw together and attain a critical distance. These ions then behave as a neutral species, allowing them to partition more readily into a lipid environment. Partition coefficient studies may be used to determine the potential of ions to pair and partition into an organic phase but cannot be relied upon to predict flux. Early researchers indicated that temperature, size of ions and dielectric constant of the solvent system all contributed to the formation of ion pairs. While size is important, this may be outweighed by improved lipophilicity of the counter ion due to increased length of the carbon chain. Organic counter ions are more effective than inorganic moieties in forming ion pairs. In addition to being used to increase permeation, ion pairs have been used to control and even prevent permeation of the active ingredient. They have also been used to stabilise solid lipid nanoparticle formulations. Ion pairs have been used in conjunction with permeation enhancers, and permeation enhancers have been used as counter ions in ion pairing. This review attempts to show the various ways in which ion pairs have been used in drug delivery via the skin. It also endeavours to extract and consolidate common approaches in order to inform future formulations for topical and transdermal delivery.

On the Origin and Underappreciated Effects of Ion Doping in Silica

The origin of selectivity in the hollowing of silica nanoparticles is investigated to further understand silica. It is realized that, during the synthesis, the silica precursors are essentially ion-paired polyelectrolytes, whose nucleation depends on the concentration of the counter ions, and most importantly, the size/length of the poly(silicic acid). Thus, the "silica" that nucleates out at the different stages of synthesis has different degrees of ion doping, which explains its solubility in water, its microporosity, and the selective etching phenomena. The etching of silica in water is shown to be a matter of silica solubility, which correlates to the relative amounts of solvent and to the solvent quality (the water/isopropanol ratio). Hollowing does not occur when the silica nanoparticles are incubated in solutions presaturated with "silica," ruling out surface reposition and Ostwald ripening as the hollowing mechanism. The embedded ions in silica are confirmed by elemental analysis (CHNS) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. The high ionic doping ratios (N/Si = 2.3% for NH3 -catalyzed silica; Na/Si = 11.2% for NaOH-catalyzed silica) explain the unusual solubility of silica in neutral water. The new view of silica with the ionic impurities on the central stage allows for insights in silica properties and versatility in synthetic design.