Preservation of male fertility in patients undergoing pelvic irradiation

As the number of cancer survivors increases, so does the demand for preserving male fertility after radiation. It is important for healthcare providers to understand the pathophysiology of radiation-induced testicular injury, the techniques of fertility preservation both before and during radiation, and their role in counseling patients on the risks to their fertility and the means of mitigating these risks. Impaired spermatogenesis is a known testicular toxicity of radiation in both the acute and the late settings, as rapidly dividing spermatogonial germ cells are exquisitely sensitive to irradiation. The threshold for spermatogonial injury and subsequent impairment in spermatogenesis is ~ 0.1 Gy and the severity of gonadal injury is highly dose-dependent. Total doses < 4 Gy may allow for recovery of spermatogenesis and fertility potential, but with larger doses, recovery may be protracted or impossible. All patients undergoing gonadotoxic radiation therapy should be counseled on the possibility of future infertility, offered the opportunity for semen cryopreservation, and offered referral to a fertility specialist. In addition to this, every effort should be made to shield the testes (if not expected to contain tumor) during therapy.

Pharmacological semen collection in domestic and wild canids and felids: literature review

Semen collection methods vary greatly and rely on the practitioner's expertise, available materials, and the specific behavioral traits of the male animals involved. When it comes to domestic cats, wild felids, and canids, semen collection is particularly challenging. Thus, given the difficulty of semen collection in these species, pharmacological semen collection (PSC) stands out since it is a quick and straightforward method that does not require specific equipment. The PSC consists of administering α2-adrenergic receptor agonist drugs, mainly medetomidine, and dexmedetomidine, aiming semen release into the urethra with posterior urethral catheterization and sperm recovery. This technique was primarily described in domestic cats and wild felids, and despite the decreased seminal volume, the retrieved semen is highly concentrated and presents good quality. However, further studies are required to optimize semen collection in domestic dogs and wild canids. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the research developed on pharmacological semen collection (PSC) in the past few decades. The objective is to equip professionals with the essential knowledge required for the efficient application of this technique in both domestic and wild canids and felids and to make a valuable contribution to conservation efforts and the preservation of biodiversity, aligning with the principles of One Conservation.

Case report: Filarial infection of a parti-coloured bat: Litomosa sp. adult worms in abdominal cavity and microfilariae in bat semen

Background

Filarial infections have been understudied in bats. Likewise, little is known about pathogens associated with the reproductive system in chiropterans. While semen quality is critical for reproductive success, semen-borne pathogens may contribute to reproductive failure.

Methods

For the first time we performed electroejaculation and used computer-assisted semen analysis to provide baseline data on semen quality in a parti-coloured bat (Vespertilio murinus).

Results

The semen quality values measured in the V. murinus male appeared high (semen concentration = 305.4 × 106/mL; progressive and motile sperm = 46.58 and 60.27%, respectively). As an incidental finding, however, microfilariae were observed in the bat semen examined. At necropsy, eight adult filarial worms, later genetically identified as Litomosa sp., were found in the peritoneal cavity, close to the stomach, of the same particoloured bat male dying as a result of dysmicrobia and haemorrhagic gastroenteritis in a wildlife rescue centre. Histopathology revealed microfilariae in the testicular connective tissue and the epidydimal connective and fat tissues. A PCR assay targeting cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 confirmed that adult worms from the peritoneal cavity and testicular microfilariae were of the same filarial species. Mildly engorged argasid mite larvae attached to the bat skin proved negative for filarial DNA and the adult filarial worms proved negative for endosymbiont Wolbachia.

Conclusion

While the standard filarial life cycle pattern involves a vertebrate definitive host and an invertebrate vector, represented by a blood-sucking ectoparasite, our finding suggests that microfilariae of this nematode species may also be semen-borne, with transmission intensity promoted by the polygynous mating system of vespertilionid bats in which an infected male mates with many females during the autumn swarming. Presence of microfilariae may be expected to decrease semen quality and transmission via this route may challenge the success of reproductive events in females after mating. Further investigation will be necessary to better understand the bat-parasite interaction and the life cycle of this filarial worm.

Effect of Electroejaculation Protocols on Semen Quality and Concentrations of Testosterone, Cortisol, Malondialdehyde, and Creatine Kinase in Captive Bengal Tigers

The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is critically endangered, so assisted reproductive technologies, including artificial insemination, are important conservation tools. For wild and domestic felids, electroejaculation (EE) is the most common semen collection method, with protocols optimized to obtain sufficient amounts of viable sperm for artificial insemination. However, less attention has been paid to ensuring animal wellbeing during the process. This study examined the effects of three EE protocols (Low, 2-5 volts; Medium, 3-6 volts; High, 4-7 volts) on semen quality, testicular size, serum testosterone, creatine kinase (CK), and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations, and serum cortisol as a proxy for stress. Blood samples were collected before, during, and after each EE series. Seminal plasma pH, and sperm motility, viability, and morphology were evaluated after each procedure. Seminal plasma and sperm pellet MDA concentrations were also determined. Primary sperm abnormalities and seminal plasma MDA were higher in the Low compared to Medium and High voltage groups (p < 0.05). Serum CK in the High voltage group increased during the EE series (p < 0.05), suggesting the potential for muscle damage. However, no significant changes were observed for serum cortisol, testosterone, or MDA concentrations. Results suggest the Medium voltage protocol produced good quality samples at lower voltages than the High protocol with no negative effect on muscle function, which might be better for animal welfare.

A novel, patented method for semen collection in dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius)

In the current article, a developed, patented method denoted the 'Camel Semen Collection Kit-CSCK', was designed to solve the problem of semen collection in dromedary camels. CSCK is composed of three main parts: (1) Semen collection sac: made from supersensitive flexible low-density polyethylene- (LDPE); (2) Metal stainless steel applicator: designed to introduce the collection sac intravaginally and fixate it to the vaginal wall of a female camel through air insufflation; (3) Fixation sticker: a cushion sheet sticker is used to secure the outer portion of the collection sac to the female's perineal area. Semen was collected twice a week from eight dromedary bulls by using electroejaculation (EJ), artificial vagina (AV) and CSCK. Successful semen collections were 81.3%, 84.4% and 43.8% using EJ, CSCK and AV techniques respectively. Semen obtained by EJ technique showed lower semen volume, gross activity, sperm concentration, total sperm motility and percentage of live sperm cells compared to the other two techniques. Semen collected by CSCK showed a longer collection period and higher volume, gross activity, sperm motility and percentage of live spermatozoa and a lower rate of visible contamination compared to AV technique. The advantages and disadvantages of the three techniques were compared and discussed. In conclusion, CSCK represents a practical and easy method to reliably collect high-quality semen from any untrained male dromedary camel and may facilitate the widespread application of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) on a large scale in this species.

Administration of carbetocin-a long-acting oxytocin analogue-before sperm collection by transrectal ultrasound-guided massage of the accessory sex glands in bucks (Capra hircus) and ibexes (Capra pyrenaica)

Transrectal ultrasonic-guided massage of the accessory sex glands (TUMASG) is a technique that allows collecting semen requiring few electrical stimuli or even no pulse. A long-acting analogue of oxytocin (carbetocin, 0.1 mg) was i.v. administered before TUMASG in 10 conscious bucks (Experiment 1) and 10 anaesthetized Iberian ibexes (Experiment 2) to shorten the time of semen collection, decrease the number of electrical stimuli and/or improve the semen quality. The ejaculated volume, concentration, quality parameters and kinetics variables of the sperm were determined in fresh semen. The time length of the procedures and the number of electric pulses applied were recorded. Furthermore, stress response indicators (number of vocalizations in Experiment 1; heart and respiratory rates, rectal temperature, cortisol levels, totals proteins and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in Experiment 2) were documented. In bucks, the administration of carbetocin tended to shorten the time needed for semen collection but no-showed differences in the fresh seminal quality. In the Iberian ibexes, there were no significant differences between groups in the time length of procedures or in the number of animals that ejaculated. Carbetocin administration only reduced the respiratory rate, did it modify fresh semen characteristics in ibexes. In conclusion, the administration of carbetocin did not appear as a useful tool to improve welfare during semen collection with TUMASG or semen quality in conscious bucks and anaesthetized ibexes, having only slight advantages related to the procedure.

Proteomic analysis of koala (phascolarctos cinereus) spermatozoa and prostatic bodies

The aims of this study were to investigate the proteome of koala spermatozoa and that of the prostatic bodies with which they interact during ejaculation. For this purpose, spermatozoa and prostatic bodies were fractionated from the semen of four male koalas and analysed by HPLC MS/MS. This strategy identified 744 sperm and 1297 prostatic body proteins, which were subsequently attributed to 482 and 776 unique gene products, respectively. Gene ontology curation of the sperm proteome revealed an abundance of proteins mapping to the canonical sirtuin and 14-3-3 signalling pathways. By contrast, protein ubiquitination and unfolded protein response pathways dominated the equivalent analysis of proteins uniquely identified in prostatic bodies. Koala sperm proteins featured an enrichment of those mapping to the functional categories of cellular compromise/inflammatory response, whilst those of the prostatic body revealed an over-representation of molecular chaperone and stress-related proteins. Cross-species comparisons demonstrated that the koala sperm proteome displays greater conservation with that of eutherians (human; 93%) as opposed to reptile (crocodile; 39%) and avian (rooster; 27%) spermatozoa. Together, this work contributes to our overall understanding of the core sperm proteome and has identified biomarkers that may contribute to the exceptional longevity of koala spermatozoa during ex vivo storage.

Spermatic profile of captive giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla): Knowing more to preserve better

The giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) is being threatened by natural habitat destruction and fragmentation, illegal hunting and road kills. In this context, the generation of basic information on the reproductive parameters of this species is vital, aiming to improve reproductive management via, amongst others, assisted reproductive technologies. This study aimed to describe the morphological and functional features of semen collected from captive giant anteaters. Electroejaculation was performed in 13 animals housed in zoos located in São Paulo state, Brazil. Semen samples were collected from 13 animals in 16 procedures. Samples were evaluated for volume, motility, vigor, pH, concentration, sperm morphology, and functional tests. The following mean values were obtained: volume 1.28 ± 0.27 mL; motility 28.3 ± 6.2%; vigor 2.4 ± 0.25; concentration 129.4 ± 36.1 × 10⁶ sperm/mL; pH 7.4 ± 0.2. Total acrosome, head, midpiece, and tail sperm abnormalities were 3.2 ± 0.8%, 25.4 ± 3.6%, 20.7 ± 3.2%, and 14.7 ± 2.6%, respectively. Intact acrosome was found in 83.7 ± 3.1% and intact membrane in 81.1 ± 4.0% of all samples collected. Mitochondrial activity was 66.4 ± 6.0% (Class I), 18.7 ± 2.9% (Class II), 8.0 ± 2.0% (Class III), 3.9 ± 1.0% (Class IV), and 3.0 ± 0.9% (Class V). Sperm DNA fragmentation rate was 13.2 ± 3.7%. These results indicated that electroejaculation is a feasible method for semen collection in giant anteaters, allowing a more detailed description of the semen in this species.

Electroejaculation in men with spinal cord injury: a step-by-step video demonstration

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the proper technique to perform electroejacuation (EEJ) in men with spinal cord injury (SCI) for the purpose of inducing ejaculation.

DESIGN

A video demonstration of the proper technique to perform EEJ in men with SCI using the Seager model 14 electroejaculation machine.

SETTING

Major university medical center.

PATIENT(S)

Men with SCI; institutional review board approval was obtained, and all subjects signed an informed consent form.

INTERVENTION(S)

Spinal cord injury occurs mostly in young men where the majority suffer from ejaculatory dysfunction. The method of choice to induce ejaculation in penile vibratory stimulation (PVS). PVS is successful in 86% of men with SCI whose level of injury is T10 or rostral. If PVS fails or the level is Caudal to T10, the patient is referred for EEJ. This video will demonstrate the proper technique for successful ejaculation using EEJ. Patients with history of autonomic dysreflexia or their level of injury is T6 or rostral are pretreated with 10-20 mg of nifedipine sublingually 10 minutes before stimulation. The patient is then placed in the lateral decubitus position. The bladder is emptied, and a buffer is instilled. An anoscopy is performed, and a rectal probe is placed. A current is delivered until an antegrade ejaculation is retrieved. A retrograde specimen is collected and examined for sperm identification. Patients with complete SCI (no sensory or motor function is preserved in sacral segments S4-S5) can undergo EEJ without anesthesia. Patients with incomplete SCI (significant nerve sparing or normal sensations) will experience pain during stimulation, and general anesthesia is recommended without the use of muscle relaxing agents.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Successful ejaculation after performing EEJ in men with SCI.

RESULT(S)

Electroejacuation is successful in 95% of men with SCI and in nearly 100% if general anesthesia is used. Outcomes of in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection after EEJ showed 37.5% pregnancy rate per cycle, 50.0% pregnancy rate per couple, 33.3% live birth rate per cycle, and 43.8% live birth rate per couple. No complications due to EEJ were observed in 953 trials, and none occurred in the patients presented in this video demonstration.

CONCLUSION(S)

Electroejacuation is a safe and reliable method for induction of ejaculation in men with SCI who fail a trial of PVS.

Cryopreservation of ferret (Mustela putorius furo) sperm collected by rectal massage and electroejaculation: Comparison of a decelerating and an accelerating freezing rate protocol

The domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) provides a good model for developing new reproductive technologies for use with threatened related species. Such technologies could also be used in the reproductive management of this pet species. The present work reports an improved freezing protocol for ferret sperm. Semen was collected by electroejaculation plus rectal massage (in an attempt to reduce the electrical stimulation necessary) from five adult male ferrets, and then subjected to one of two freezing protocols: (a) from 5 to −35°C at 40°C/min, then from −35 to −65°C at 17°C/min, and finally from −65 to −85°C at 3°C/min—a decelerating freezing rate; and (b) from 5 to − 10°C at 5°C/min, and then from −10 to −130°C at 60°C/min—an accelerating freezing rate. After thawing, the viability and acrosomal integrity of the sperm frozen via the two‐step accelerating method were better than those frozen via the three‐step decelerating method (43.3 ± 3.5% and 71.2 ± 3.4% compared with 29.7 ± 3.7% and 58.8 ± 3.4% respectively; p < .05). No differences were seen between the methods with respect to sperm motility variables; most sperm (>90%) remained static with both freezing methods. In conclusion, although the method with accelerating freezing rate was associated with better post‐thaw sperm viability and acrosome integrity values, neither of the two freezing methods tested provided adequate motility results after thawing. Combining rectal massage with electrical stimuli seemed to reduce the number of the latter required for successful sperm collection.

Urethral catheterization as an alternative method for collecting sperm in the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes)

The endangered black-footed ferret (BFF; Mustela nigripes) is an important example of the benefits of assisted reproduction in species conservation with both semen evaluation and artificial insemination using fresh and frozen sperm being successfully incorporated into the breeding program. Currently, electroejaculation (EE) is routinely utilized for semen collection in BFFs, a technique that requires custom equipment and experienced operators, and does not consistently yield viable samples in this species. In this case study, we evaluated the feasibility of urethral catheterization (UC) for semen collection, a method predominately tested in domestic and non-domestic felids, on four occasions (three BFF males). After general anesthesia with a combination of ketamine, midazolam and α2-agonist dexmedetomidine (thought to promote semen release into the urethra), a lightly lubricated, flexible feeding tube was passed into the urethral opening and advanced ~7-8 cm into the urethra. A syringe attached to the feeding tube was used to apply mild negative pressure to collect sperm. Semen samples were successfully collected on all four attempts. Sperm characteristics ranged as follows: 10.5-26.0 × 10⁶ sperm/ml concentration, 50-90% motility and 36-61% normal sperm morphology. This is the first report of the use of UC as a potential alternative to EE in the BFF, a more field-friendly technique that is less invasive and more consistent for obtaining samples free of urine contamination.

Adult and yearling pampas deer stags (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) display mild reproductive seasonal patterns with maximum values in autumn

The pampas deer is an endangered species, from which reproductive biology little is known. We aimed to describe and compare the reproductive seasonal patterns of adult and yearling pampas deer stags throughout the year, including morphological traits, testosterone concentration, sperm morphology and cryoresistance pattern changes. Six adult (AS) and five yearling (YS) stags were captured with anesthetic darts once in winter, spring, summer and autumn to study morphological variables, serum testosterone and semen. Adult males were heavier, their neck girth tended to be greater and their testosterone concentration was higher than in YS. Animals were heavier in summer and autumn. Neck girth and testosterone concentration were greater in autumn. Scrotal circumference, testicular volume and gonado-somatic index varied with seasons, decreasing from winter to spring, increasing in summer and remaining in greater values in autumn. Sperm quality had maximum values from summer to winter. However, the cryoresistance ratio of motility score was greater in spring. In conclusion, in the captivity conditions, pampas deer stags seems to present a light seasonal reproductive pattern, with maximum testis size, testosterone secretion and fresh semen quality in autumn. Nevertheless, sperm cryoresistance ratio seemed to remain stable along the year. Although YS were still growing, they achieved similar semen quality than AS.

Spermatozoa retrieved by electroejaculation: Should we prefer fresh or cryopreserved spermatozoa for intracytoplasmic sperm injection?

We aim to evaluate our experience, comparing intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) outcomes of cycle using fresh versus thawed electroejaculated spermatozoa. All consecutive couples undergoing ICSI cycles using electroejaculated spermatozoa, during a 16-year period, were evaluated. Embryological/laboratory variables of the ICSI cycles were assessed and compared between those utilising fresh (fresh group) versus thawed (thawed group) electroejaculated spermatozoa. Fifty-seven couples were evaluated, 30 used a fresh electroejaculated spermatozoa in 55 ICSI cycles, while 27 used a thawed sperm sample in 41 ICSI cycles. There were no in-between group differences in the mean numbers of oocytes retrieved per oocyte retrieval nor the percentage of MII oocytes. The fresh group demonstrated significantly higher fertilisation (71.5% vs. 64.1%, respectively, p < .05), top-quality embryos (66.5% vs. 54.9%, respectively, p < .02), clinical pregnancy per transfer (41.3% and 21.2%, respectively, p < .05) and cumulative clinical pregnancy (58.2% vs. 26.8%, respectively, p < .001) rates, as compared to the thawed group. Independent of the source of spermatozoa used, no pregnancy was achieved following ICSI utilising immotile spermatozoa. In conclusion, ICSI cycles using ejaculated spermatozoa of patients suffering from neurologic or psychogenic anejaculation are reassuring. The use of fresh ejaculated spermatozoa retrieved on the day of the female spouse oocyte retrieval might improve outcome. Whenever a thawed electroejaculated spermatozoa yield no motile spermatozoa, emergency electroejaculation is mandatory.

Semen Parameters of Fertile Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus) Collected by Transrectal Electroejaculation

Simple Summary

The guinea pig is an important livestock species in some South American countries. Peruvian guinea pig exports are still increasing since 2000. Peru has made genetic improvements on the species since 1986. However, there are few advances in reproductive biotechnology. Thus, there is a lack of information about harmless, efficient semen collection techniques in the species. Consequently, the selection of fertile males takes a long time due to the absence of validated seminal parameter standards. For that reason, it is necessary to set semen reference values through an objective electroejaculation technique for guinea pigs. This study describes semen parameters of fertile males and validates a novel semen collection technique for the species. These values will serve as a reference to detect infertile males and to select the best males for breeding purposes, improving the reproductive performance on farms.

Abstract

The guinea pig, as a livestock species, is still developing and growing throughout Peru and neighboring countries, as reflected by its increasing export since 2000. However, the selection of proven fertile males is tedious due to the absence of seminal parameter standards and the lack of safe semen collection techniques. Thus, pregnancy detection or live births are required for males’ selection. The purpose of this study was to describe the qualitative and quantitative semen parameters of fertile guinea pig males, to set reference values, and to validate a novel electroejaculation technique for the species. Semen was collected at weekly intervals from sixteen fertile males. Four transrectal electroejaculations were performed per male with 95% successful collections, yielding 39 viable semen samples. Seminal characteristics were as follows: pH 7.0 ± 0.13; ejaculate volume 0.67 ± 0.55 mL; sperm motility 90.81 ± 6.64%; sperm concentration 36.7 ± 28.41 × 106 sperm/mL; sperm count 20.09 ± 17.56 × 106 sperm/ejaculate; percentage of abnormal morphology 18.26 ± 8.52%; and percentage ubiquitinated spermatozoa 5.57 ± 6.28%. These values will serve as a reference to detect best breeding and infertile males rapidly. The described techniques are reproducible by commercial producers.

Sperm preservation by electroejaculation before anticancer therapy

BACKGROUND

This report presents a case where electroejaculation (EEJ) was used for semen cryopreservation (SCP), prior to gonadotoxic anti-cancer treatment in a 14-year old boy diagnosed with Hodgkins disease.

METHOD

Two sessions of EEJ were performed with an interval of 48 hours.

RESULTS

No complications were seen and the procedures resulted in nine frozen straws of motile spermatozoa.

CONCLUSION

EEJ is a safe and feasible procedure for SCP in an adolescent cancer patient who is unable to masturbate or use penile vibratory stimulation (PVS).

Post-thawing effects of three cryopreservation diluents on Rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) spermatozoa

The aim of this study was to evaluate home-made and commercial extenders for the cryopreservation of Rusa deer semen. After collection by electroejaculation, six ejaculates were diluted and frozen in TES-based, Tris-based and Triladyl^® extenders. Subjective motility, viability, morphology, acrosome integrity and membrane functionality were assessed post-thawing and after 1-hr incubation at 37°C (Thermal stress test). Total and progressive motility, and kinematic parameters were also assessed through CASA system. Post-thawing sperm progressive motility (PM), velocity according to the straight path (VSL) and linearity (LIN) showed significant differences, and higher values were detected for spermatozoa diluted with Triladyl^® and TES (p < 0.05) as compared with Tris (PM of Triladyl^® 14.7% vs. 3.2% TES and 2.5% Tris; VSL 56 for Triladyl^® , 59.2 for TES and 41.7 for Tris; LIN 45.6 for Triladyl^® , 52 for TES and 36.5 for Tris). Triladyl^® and TES extender led to better post-thawing sperm parameters, but these preliminary results need to be verified through artificial insemination trials.

Collection and frozen storage of semen for artificial insemination in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

This study was conducted on red foxes to determine the appropriate voltage in electroejaculation for semen collection from stud males, and to confirm whether frozen semen with bovine semen extender can be used for artificial insemination. The proper load voltage for electroejaculation was 3-4 V based on semen collection rates and concentrations of spermatozoa. Frozen semen was prepared according to the known procedure for cows. In frozen-thawed semen, a relatively high conception rate (81.3%) was obtained in vixens, in which the optimum insemination time was detected by vaginal electrical resistance. These findings demonstrate that the restricted condition for semen collection by electroejaculation with cryopreservation of semen using bovine semen extender can be applied to artificial insemination of red foxes.

A comparison between the semen and sperm parameters from the captive-bred Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) and Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

BACKGROUND

It is generally accepted that non-human primates (NHP) represent the model of choice for integrative studies of testicular function and endocrine control. However, there are many species-specific differences that necessitate identification prior to the selection of an appropriate model for these studies. In an NHP breeding facility, this opportunity of selection is usually presented during breeding periods when it is crucial to determine which individuals should be maintained as breeders. With reference to adult males and their use in breeding programs and reproductive studies, it is therefore imperative to document the normal semen and sperm values, expected seasonal changes and the variabilities found within samples and among individuals. The comparison of closely related species that differ by breeding seasonality will, therefore, highlight their value in reproductive research.

METHODS

Semen samples were obtained by rectal probe electroejaculation (RPE). The seminal and sperm characteristics of captive-bred Vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) (n = 10) and Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) (n = 10) were evaluated and compared. Parameters such as semen volume, pH, sperm concentration, and sperm motility were analyzed by means of a computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA) system.

RESULTS

Large variations in semen and sperm parameter values indicated differences between species and samples. Monthly variations were observed for the Vervet regardless of breeding and conceptions that occurred throughout the year. In contrast, Rhesus seminal characteristics indicated a clear seasonal trend.

CONCLUSION

Non-human primates have long provided as research models for studying complexities of human reproductive biology. The baseline values reported from this study can be applied as guidelines during the selection of male individuals for reproductive studies. Of further interest is the comparative data on semen and sperm parameters between two congeneric species that differ by seasonal versus aseasonal breeding.

Semen collection and ejaculate characteristics of the Leopard Tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis)

The preservation of spermatozoa is an important tool used in conservation programs to increase the genetic diversity of threatened and endangered species. Although routinely used to manage conservation programs for higher vertebrates, there have been limited attempts to establish reproductive assistance programs for tortoises. The purpose of this study was to develop a model for collecting and characterizing semen in Testudinidae. Semen was collected from 13/16 (81.2%, 95% CI: 62-100) adult male leopard tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis) via electroejaculation under propofol anesthesia. Semen samples were collected most frequently after the second series of electrostimulations (6/13, 46.1%), with fewer animals producing semen after the first (5/13, 38.5%) or third (2/13, 15.4%) electrostimulations. The average volume of a semen sample in the tortoises was 0.26 ml (standard deviation: 0.16, minimum-maximum: 0.1-0.6), the average spermatozoal concentration was 101.62 × 10⁶/ml, and the average motility at time of collection was 57.3%. A rapid decrease in motility was observed in refrigerated samples over 24 h resulting in a median motility of 0% at 24 h post-collection. The results of this study suggest that electroejaculation is a safe and efficient method for collecting semen from leopard tortoises.

Semen characteristics, extension, and cryopreservation of Rusa deer (Rusa timorensis)

AIM

The objective of this research is to report parameters for breeding soundness evaluation, semen extension, and cryopreservation in Rusa timorensis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seven healthy stags were chosen for semen collection using an electroejaculator. The collections were performed twice in a breeding season between February and June 2016. Samples were collected between 2 and 3 weeks interval, collected twice for each animal. Semen was evaluated, extended, and cryopreserved using four different extenders; Andromed^®, BioXcell^®, Triladyl^®, and a modified Tris-egg yolk combined with Eurycoma longifolia Jack.

RESULTS

R. timorensis semen characteristics according to volume (ml), color, sperm concentration (10⁶/ml), general motility (%), progressive motility (%), and % morphology of normal spermatozoa are 0.86±0.18 ml, thin milky to milky, 1194.2±346.1 10⁶/ml, 82.9±2.8%, 76.1±4.8%, and 83.9±4.8%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Semen characteristics of R. timorensis collected by electroejaculation is good allowing for cryopreservation and future artificial insemination work. The most suitable extender for Rusa deer semen is Andromed^®.

Reproductive Health of Men with Spinal Cord Injury

Most men with spinal cord injury (SCI) are infertile due to a combination of erectile dysfunction, ejaculatory dysfunction, and abnormal semen quality. This article addresses issues that should be considered when managing the reproductive health of men with SCI. The authors present recommendations based on their decades of experience in managing the reproductive health of more than 1,000 men with SCI. Men with SCI face obstacles when pursuing sexual activity and/or biologic fatherhood. Hypogonadism and premature symptoms of aging may interfere with sexual function. Erectile dysfunction is prevalent in the SCI population, and treatments for erectile dysfunction in the general population are also effective in the SCI population. Most men with SCI cannot ejaculate with sexual intercourse. The procedures of penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) and/or electroejaculation (EEJ) are effective in obtaining an ejaculate from 97% of men with SCI. The ejaculate often contains sufficient total motile sperm to consider the assisted conception procedures of intrauterine insemination or even intravaginal insemination at home. If PVS and/or EEJ fail, sperm may be retrieved surgically from the testis or epididymis. Surgical sperm retrieval typically yields enough motile sperm only for in vitro fertilization with intracytoplasmic sperm injection. The majority of new cases of SCI occur in young men at the peak of their reproductive health. With proper medical management, these men can expect to experience active sexual lives and biologic fatherhood, if these are their goals. Numerous tools are available to physicians for helping these patients reach their goals.

Electroejaculation in patients with spinal cord injuries: A 21-year, single-center experience

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate treatment results of electroejaculation in patients with spinal cord injuries and the additional value of repeated electroejaculation.

METHODS

We carried out a retrospective chart analysis of all spinal cord injury patients treated with electroejaculation at University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands, from January 1994 to July 2015. Data were collected on the patients' demographics and medical history. We evaluated sperm quality according to World Health Organization standards, pregnancy and delivery rates.

RESULTS

A total of 230 electroejaculation procedures were carried out in 47 patients. In 227 of 230 electroejaculations (98.7%), an ejaculate could be obtained. In 169 of 230 (73.5%) electroejaculation procedures, it was possible to yield semen containing progressively motile spermatozoa. In 18 of 47 (38.3%) patients, no semen of sufficient quality could be yielded during the first electroejaculation. Repeated electroejaculation resulted in ejaculates containing progressively motile spermatozoa in seven of 18 (38.9%) of these men. Procreation was attempted through in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection in 17 couples; of these, 14 of 17 (82.4%) couples achieved pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

In the majority of spinal cord injury patients treated with electroejaculation, it is possible to obtain semen that can be used for assisted reproductive technologies. Repeated electroejaculation should be considered when the first procedure fails.

Management of male neurologic patients with infertility

Many aspects of fertility rely on intact neurologic function and thus neurologic diseases can result in infertility. While research into general female fertility and alterations in male semen quality is limited, we have an abundance of knowledge regarding ejaculatory dysfunction following nerve injury. Normal ejaculation is the result of coordinated reflex activity involving both the sympathetic and somatic nervous systems. Nerve injury can result in retrograde ejaculation, and anejaculation. With retrograde ejaculation, the ejaculate is propelled into the bladder instead of out through the urethra. In mild cases this condition can be reversed by sympathomimetic medications and, in more severe cases, sperm cells can be extracted from the bladder following ejaculation. With anejaculation, the ejaculatory reflex is not activated by normal sexual stimulation. In such cases, the first choice of treatment is assisted ejaculation, preferably by penile vibratory stimulation. If vibratory stimulation is unsuccessful, then ejaculation can almost always be induced by electroejaculation. In cases where assisted ejaculation fails, sperm can be retrieved surgically from either the epididymis or from the testis. Once viable sperm cells have been obtained, these are used in assisted reproductive techniques, including intravaginal insemination, intrauterine insemination, and in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection.

COMPARISON OF TWO α2-ADRENERGIC AGONISTS ON URINE CONTAMINATION OF SEMEN COLLECTED BY ELECTROEJACULATION IN CAPTIVE AND SEMI-FREE-RANGING CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS)

Alpha2-adrenergic agonists are used to immobilize many veterinary species, but use has been infrequently linked to urine contamination of semen collected via electroejaculation. The objective of the study was to compare the α2-agonists medetomidine and dexmedetomidine on urine contamination of semen in anesthetized cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) during electroejaculation procedures. From 2009-2012, a retrospective medical record review revealed 21 anesthesia events in 12 adult male cheetahs. Animals were immobilized with combinations of Telazol® (2.33±0.43 mg/kg) and ketamine (2.38±1 mg/kg); Telazol (1.17±0.14 mg/kg), ketamine (1.17±0.14 mg/kg), and medetomidine (0.012±0.0017 mg/kg); or Telazol (1.59±0.1 mg/kg), ketamine (1.59±0.1 mg/kg) and dexmedetomidine (0.01±0.001 mg/kg). Semen was successfully collected in all animals; four animals anesthetized with medetomidine had urine contamination (P=0.037). Medetomidine may contribute to urine contamination; however, further investigation is needed to determine significance in cheetahs.

Electroejaculation in psychogenic anejaculation

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the results of treatment with electroejaculation (EEJ), intrauterine insemination (IUI), and IVF/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (IVF/ICSI) in patients with psychogenic anejaculation (PAE).

DESIGN

Retrospective clinical study.

SETTING

Academic tertiary referral fertility center.

PATIENT(S)

Eleven male patients diagnosed with psychogenic anejaculation (PAE) were included. Median age at the time of first treatment with EEJ was 33.0 (interquartile range, 29.0-36.0) years.

INTERVENTION(S)

Electroejaculation, IUI, and IVF/ICSI.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Semen analysis, fertilization rate, implantation rate, pregnancy rate, and delivery rate.

RESULT(S)

A total of 60 EEJs were performed in 11 patients. Mean VCM (volume [mL] × concentration [sperm cells/mL] × percentage progressive motile cells) of the retrieved sperm of all EEJs was 17.5 × 10(6) (SD 16.5 × 10(6)). Yielded semen was used in a total of 26 ICSI procedures in seven couples. The fertilization rate was 65.6% (80 of 122). The ICSI cycles resulted in five pregnancies; of these, one resulted in a spontaneous abortion in the first trimester. Three couples were treated with 34 IUI cycles, which resulted in live births in four pregnancies.

CONCLUSION(S)

Electroejaculation is a suitable and effective treatment that can be used in men with psychogenic anejaculation. The retrieved semen can be used successfully in assisted reproductive technology treatment. In this study EEJ resulted in pregnancies and the birth of eight healthy children.

Sperm preservation by electroejaculation in adolescent cancer patients

BACKGROUND

The increasing prevalence of cancer survivors who are infertile due to gonadal failure highlights the importance of fertility preservation prior to gonadotoxic treatments. Adolescent cancer patients may not be mature enough to produce sperm by masturbation, leading to the use of alternative methods for obtaining sperm for cryopreservation. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of electroejaculation (EEJ) for cryopreservation among adolescent cancer patients.

PROCEDURE

This retrospective cohort study included 45 adolescent (12-18 years old) cancer patients who underwent EEJ during 2002-2012 in an academic tertiary referral fertility center. Sperm cryopreservation, ejaculate parameters, and procedure complications were evaluated.

RESULTS

EEJ was performed without documented complications. Sperm was successfully obtained in 30 (66.7%) patients. Retrieval failures included ejaculates without sperm in 8 patients (17.8%) and no ejaculate in 7 patients (15.5%). Cryopreserved ejaculates were characterized by severe asthenospermia, normal sperm concentration, and low volume. Retrieved sperm group was further divided to 19 motile sperm ejaculates with significantly higher volume, sperm concentration, and total count compared to 10 non-motile sperm patients.

CONCLUSIONS

EEJ is a safe and feasible procedure for cryopreservation in adolescent cancer patients who are unable to masturbate. The wide diversity of EEJ outcome and ejaculate parameters may represent a continuum of pubertal changes in that population.

Fresh semen quality in ejaculates produced by nocturnal emission in men with idiopathic anejaculation

OBJECTIVE

To compare the quality of fresh semen samples collected by nocturnal emission (NE), penile vibratory stimulation (PVS), or electroejaculation (EEJ) from idiopathic anejaculation patients with those collected by masturbation from healthy control subjects.

DESIGN

Retrospective clinical study.

SETTING

University medical center.

PATIENT(S)

Ninety-one men with idiopathic anejaculation.

INTERVENTION(S)

NE, PVS, EEJ, computer-assisted semen analysis system.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Sperm volume, concentration, motility, and morphology.

RESULT(S)

The mean percentage of motile sperm in the NE group was 30.6% ± 3.5% (range 11.2%-50.9%), which is 1.5- and 1.9-fold higher than that of the PVS (20.5% ± 1.3%, range 6.9%-40.2%) and EEJ (16.1% ± 0.9%, range 3.7%-27.3%) groups, respectively. The percentage of sperm that have normal morphology in the NE group was 61.4% ± 4.8%, which is significantly higher than that in the PVS (38.4% ± 2.8%) and EEJ groups (29.5% ± 1.7%), respectively. However, compared with the healthy control group, the sperm motility and normal morphology in the NE, PVS, and EEJ groups were significantly lower. The sperm concentration in the NE group (149.4 ± 16.3 × 10(6) mL(-1)) was similar to that of the PVS group (143.8 ± 13.1 × 10(6) mL(-1)) but was higher than in the EEJ group (96.3 ± 8.6 × 10(6) mL(-1)) and lower than in the control group (225.0 ± 15.0 × 10(6) mL(-1)). Furthermore, the semen volume in the NE group (2.6 ± 0.2 mL) was lower than that of the control group (3.0 ± 0.1 mL).

CONCLUSION(S)

This study is the first to report on the quality of fresh semen obtained by NE in patients with idiopathic anejaculation. Sperm motility and normal morphology were higher in patients who collected sperm by NE than in those who collected sperm by PVS and EEJ.

Effects of spinal cord injury on semen parameters

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND

Neurogenic reproductive dysfunction in men with spinal cord injury (SCI) is common and the result of a combination of impotence, ejaculatory failure, and abnormal semen characteristics. It is well established that the semen quality of men with SCI is poor and that changes are seen as early as 2 weeks after injury. The distinguishing characters of poor quality are abnormal sperm motility and viability. In the majority of the men with SCI, the sperm count is not abnormal. We elaborate on the effects of the SCI on semen parameters that may contribute to poor motility and poor viability.

METHODS

Review.

DESIGN

PubMed and MEDLINE databases were searched using the following key words: spinal cord injuries, fertility, sexual dysfunction, and spermatogenesis. All literature was reviewed by the team of authors according to the various stages of sperm development and transport in the male reproductive cycle.

FINDINGS

The cause of asthenozoospermia appears to be multifactorial.

CONCLUSION

Current literature does not support the preeminence of a single factor relating to neurogenic reproductive dysfunction in men with SCI. After SCI, there is ample evidence of disturbance of sperm production, maturation and storage, and transport due to an abnormal neuroendocrine milieu. Semen quality seems to be primarily affected by changes to the seminal plasma constituents, type of bladder management, and the neurogenic impairment to the ejaculatory function. Further focused and structured studies are required.

Analysis of limited fertility in intracytoplasmic sperm injection of sperm obtained by electroejaculation

Background and Aims:  We correlated findings in semen from patients with ejaculatory dysfunction with results of in vitro fertilization using their electroejaculated sperm. Methods and Results:  Electroejaculation was carried out in six patients with the above-mentioned criteria for a total of eight times. Sperm was obtained in six attempts. Intracytoplasmic injection of these sperm was performed in 156 eggs. Sixty-seven eggs were fertilized; most of these were injected with motile sperm. Two women became pregnant, both after injection with motile sperm. As previously reported, electroejaculated sperm showed low motility and a low fertilization rate, but even motile sperm had a low fertilization rate. Conclusion:  The results of the present study suggest the importance in fertilization of undetermined factors in addition to sperm motility. (Reprod Med Biol 2004; 3: 9-12).

Research in nondomestic species: experiences in reproductive physiology research for conservation of endangered felids

Tremendous strides have been made in recent years to broaden our understanding of reproductive processes in nondomestic felid species and further our capacity to use this basic knowledge to control and manipulate reproduction of endangered cats. Much of that progress has culminated from detailed scientific studies conducted in nontraditional laboratory settings, frequently at collaborating zoological parks but also under more primitive conditions, including in the field. A mobile laboratory approach is described, which incorporates a diverse array of disciplines and research techniques. This approach has been extremely useful, especially for conducting gamete characterization and function studies as well as reproductive surveys, and for facilitating the development of assisted reproductive technology. With continuing advances in assisted reproduction in rare felids, more procedures are being conducted primarily as service-related activities, targeted to increase effectiveness of species propagation and population management. It can be a challenge for both investigators and institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs) to differentiate these service-based procedures from traditional research studies (that require IACUC oversight). For research with rare cat species, multi-institutional collaboration frequently is necessary to gain access to scientifically meaningful numbers of study subjects. Similarly, for service-based efforts, the ability to perform reproductive procedures across institutions under nonstandard laboratory conditions is critical to applying reproductive sciences for managing and preserving threatened cat populations. Reproductive sciences can most effectively assist population management programs (e.g., Species Survival Plans) in addressing conservation priorities if these research and service-related procedures can be conducted "on the road" at distant national and international locales. This mobile laboratory approach has applications beyond endangered species research, notably for other scientific fields (e.g., studies of hereditary disease in domestic cat models) in which bringing the laboratory to the subject is of value.

Electroejaculated baboon (Papio anubis) sperm requires a higher dosage of pentoxifylline to enhance motility

PURPOSE

Sperm collected by electroejaculation often show poor motility. The objective was to determine whether the addition of the phosphodiesterase inhibitor, pentoxifylline, would stimulate electroejaculated baboon sperm motility.

METHODS

Electroejaculation was performed on several occasions on a male baboon and sperm collected after familiarization. Pentoxifylline was tested at the standard concentration (1 mg/ml) and at twice the concentration. Sperm parameters were evaluated using a sperm motility analyzer, as well as acrosome and DNA integrity techniques.

RESULTS

Sperm exposed to 2 mg/ml pentoxifylline had higher total motility when compared with the control and 1 mg/ml treatment. Rapid progression and velocities were higher after pentoxifylline. The acridine orange DNA normality test showed that over 90% of collected sperm had intact unfragmented DNA. About half the sperm population had normal morphology and intact acrosomes. A low percentage had cytoplasmic droplets.

CONCLUSIONS

Sperm collected by rectal probe electroejaculation required a higher concentration (2 mg/ml) of pentoxifylline for enhanced total motility, rapid progression, and higher velocity. This suggested differences in membrane properties or phosphodisterase activity in electrojeaculated sperm. The electroejaculation procedure did not denature sperm DNA at the acridine orange assay level nor were the acrosomes disrupted. The present study also documented unique information on baboon kinematic parameters.