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Visone R, Paoletti C, Cordiale A, Nicoletti L, Divieto C, Rasponi M, Chiono V, Occhetta P. In Vitro Mechanical Stimulation to Reproduce the Pathological Hallmarks of Human Cardiac Fibrosis on a Beating Chip and Predict The Efficacy of Drugs and Advanced Therapies. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2301481. [PMID: 37941521 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202301481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac fibrosis is one of the main causes of heart failure, significantly contributing to mortality. The discovery and development of effective therapies able to heal fibrotic pathological symptoms thus remain of paramount importance. Micro-physiological systems (MPS) are recently introduced as promising platforms able to accelerate this finding. Here a 3D in vitro model of human cardiac fibrosis, named uScar, is developed by imposing a cyclic mechanical stimulation to human atrial cardiac fibroblasts (AHCFs) cultured in a 3D beating heart-on-chip and exploited to screen drugs and advanced therapeutics. The sole provision of a cyclic 10% uniaxial strain at 1 Hz to the microtissues is sufficient to trigger fibrotic traits, inducing a consistent fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition and an enhanced expression and production of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Standard of care anti-fibrotic drugs (i.e., Pirfenidone and Tranilast) are confirmed to be efficient in preventing the onset of fibrotic traits in uScar. Conversely, the mechanical stimulation applied to the microtissues limit the ability of a miRNA therapy to directly reprogram fibroblasts into cardiomyocytes (CMs), despite its proved efficacy in 2D models. Such results demonstrate the importance of incorporating in vivo-like stimulations to generate more representative 3D in vitro models able to predict the efficacy of therapies in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Visone
- BiomimX Srl, Milan, 20157, Italy
- Department of Electronics, Informatics and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, 20133, Italy
| | - Camilla Paoletti
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, 10129, Italy
- Centro 3R (Interuniversity Center for the Promotion of 3Rs Principles in Teaching and Research), Pisa, 56122, Italy
| | - Alessandro Cordiale
- Department of Electronics, Informatics and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, 20133, Italy
| | - Letizia Nicoletti
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, 10129, Italy
- Centro 3R (Interuniversity Center for the Promotion of 3Rs Principles in Teaching and Research), Pisa, 56122, Italy
| | - Carla Divieto
- Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica, Division of Advanced Materials and Life Sciences, Turin, 10135, Italy
| | - Marco Rasponi
- Department of Electronics, Informatics and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, 20133, Italy
- Centro 3R (Interuniversity Center for the Promotion of 3Rs Principles in Teaching and Research), Pisa, 56122, Italy
| | - Valeria Chiono
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, 10129, Italy
- Centro 3R (Interuniversity Center for the Promotion of 3Rs Principles in Teaching and Research), Pisa, 56122, Italy
| | - Paola Occhetta
- BiomimX Srl, Milan, 20157, Italy
- Department of Electronics, Informatics and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, 20133, Italy
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2
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Ellis BW, Ronan G, Ren X, Bahcecioglu G, Senapati S, Anderson D, Handberg E, March KL, Chang HC, Zorlutuna P. Human Heart Anoxia and Reperfusion Tissue (HEART) Model for the Rapid Study of Exosome Bound miRNA Expression As Biomarkers for Myocardial Infarction. Small 2022; 18:e2201330. [PMID: 35670145 PMCID: PMC9283287 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202201330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Current biomarkers for myocardial infarction (MI) diagnosis are typically late markers released upon cell death, incapable of distinguishing between ischemic and reperfusion injury and can be symptoms of other pathologies. Circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) have recently been proposed as alternative biomarkers for MI diagnosis; however, detecting the changes in the human cardiac miRNA profile during MI is extremely difficult. Here, to study the changes in miRNA levels during acute MI, a heart-on-chip model with a cardiac channel, containing human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived cardiomyocytes in human heart decellularized matrix and collagen, and a vascular channel, containing hiPSC-derived endothelial cells, is developed. This model is exposed to anoxia followed by normoxia to mimic ischemia and reperfusion, respectively. Using a highly sensitive miRNA biosensor that the authors developed, the exact same increase in miR-1, miR-208b, and miR-499 levels in the MI-on-chip and the time-matched human blood plasma samples collected before and after ischemia and reperfusion, is shown. That the surface marker profile of exosomes in the engineered model changes in response to ischemic and reperfusion injury, which can be used as biomarkers to detect MI, is also shown. Hence, the MI-on-chip model developed here can be used in biomarker discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley W Ellis
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - George Ronan
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Xiang Ren
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Gokhan Bahcecioglu
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Satyajyoti Senapati
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - David Anderson
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine in the College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Eileen Handberg
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine in the College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Keith L March
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine in the College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Hsueh-Chia Chang
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Pinar Zorlutuna
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
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3
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Cruz-Moreira D, Visone R, Vasques-Nóvoa F, S Barros A, Leite-Moreira A, Redaelli A, Moretti M, Rasponi M. Assessing the influence of perfusion on cardiac microtissue maturation: A heart-on-chip platform embedding peristaltic pump capabilities. Biotechnol Bioeng 2021; 118:3128-3137. [PMID: 34019719 PMCID: PMC8362142 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Heart‐on‐chip is an unprecedented technology for recapitulating key biochemical and biophysical cues in cardiac pathophysiology. Several designs have been proposed to improve its ability to mimic the native tissue and establish it as a reliable research platform. However, despite mimicking one of most vascularized organs, reliable strategies to deliver oxygen and substrates to densely packed constructs of metabolically demanding cells remain unsettled. Herein, we describe a new heart‐on‐chip platform with precise fluid control, integrating an on‐chip peristaltic pump, allowing automated and fine control over flow on channels flanking a 3D cardiac culture. The application of distinct flow rates impacted on temporal dynamics of microtissue structural and transcriptional maturation, improving functional performance. Moreover, a widespread transcriptional response was observed, suggesting flow‐mediated activation of critical pathways of cardiomyocyte structural and functional maturation and inhibition of cardiomyocyte hypoxic injury. In conclusion, the present design represents an important advance in bringing engineered cardiac microtissues closer to the native heart, overcoming traditional bulky off‐chip fluid handling systems, improving microtissue performance, and matching oxygen and energy substrate requirements of metabolically active constructs, avoiding cellular hypoxia. Distinct flow patterns differently impact on microtissue performance and gene expression program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Cruz-Moreira
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberta Visone
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Francisco Vasques-Nóvoa
- Cardiovascular Research and Development Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Department of Surgery and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - António S Barros
- Cardiovascular Research and Development Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Department of Surgery and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Adelino Leite-Moreira
- Cardiovascular Research and Development Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Department of Surgery and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Alberto Redaelli
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Matteo Moretti
- Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy.,Regenerative Medicine Technologies Lab, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale (EOC), Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Marco Rasponi
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
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4
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Visone R, Ugolini GS, Cruz-Moreira D, Marzorati S, Piazza S, Pesenti E, Redaelli A, Moretti M, Occhetta P, Rasponi M. Micro-electrode channel guide (µECG) technology: an online method for continuous electrical recording in a human beating heart-on-chip. Biofabrication 2021; 13. [PMID: 33561845 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/abe4c4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac toxicity still represents a common adverse outcome causing drug attrition and post-marketing withdrawal. The development of relevant in vitro models resembling the human heart recently opened the path towards a more accurate detection of drug-induced human cardiac toxicity early in the drug development process. Organs-on-chip (OoC) have been proposed as promising tools to recapitulate in vitro the key aspects of the in vivo cardiac physiology and to provide a means to directly analyze functional readouts. In this scenario, a new device capable of continuous monitoring of electrophysiological signals from functional in vitro human hearts-on-chip is here presented. The development of cardiac microtissues was achieved through a recently published method to control the mechanical environment, while the introduction of a technology consisting in micro-electrode coaxial guides (µECG) allowed to conduct direct and non-destructive electrophysiology studies. The generated human cardiac microtissues exhibited synchronous spontaneous beating, as demonstrated by multi-point and continuous acquisition of cardiac field potential, and expression of relevant genes encoding for cardiac ion-channels. A proof-of-concept pharmacological validation on 3 drugs proved the proposed model to potentially be a powerful tool to evaluate functional cardiac toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Visone
- Politecnico di Milano Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria, Via Ponzio 34/5, Milano, Lombardia, 20133, ITALY
| | - Giovanni Stefano Ugolini
- Politecnico di Milano Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria, Via Ponzio 34/5, Milano, Lombardia, 20133, ITALY
| | - Daniela Cruz-Moreira
- Politecnico di Milano Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria, Via Ponzio 34/5, Milano, Lombardia, 20133, ITALY
| | - Simona Marzorati
- Translational Medicine, Accelera Srl, via Pasteur, Nerviano, Nerviano, MI, 20100, ITALY
| | - Stefano Piazza
- BiomimX Srl, Via Giovanni Durando 38/A, Milan, 20158, ITALY
| | | | - Alberto Redaelli
- Politecnico di Milano Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria, Via Ponzio 34/5, Milano, Lombardia, 20133, ITALY
| | - Matteo Moretti
- Cell and Tissue Engineering Lab, IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopaedic Institute, via R Galeazzi 4, Milan, 20161, ITALY
| | - Paola Occhetta
- Politecnico di Milano Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria, Via Ponzio 34/5, Milano, Lombardia, 20133, ITALY
| | - Marco Rasponi
- Politecnico di Milano Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria, Via Ponzio 34/5, Milano, Lombardia, 20133, ITALY
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5
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Worke LJ, Barthold JE, Seelbinder B, Novak T, Main RP, Harbin SL, Neu CP. Densification of Type I Collagen Matrices as a Model for Cardiac Fibrosis. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6. [PMID: 28881428 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201700114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 06/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac fibrosis is a disease state characterized by excessive collagenous matrix accumulation within the myocardium that can lead to ventricular dilation and systolic failure. Current treatment options are severely lacking due in part to the poor understanding of the complexity of molecular pathways involved in cardiac fibrosis. To close this gap, in vitro model systems that recapitulate the defining features of the fibrotic cellular environment are in need. Type I collagen, a major cardiac extracellular matrix protein and the defining component of fibrotic depositions, is an attractive choice for a fibrosis model, but demonstrates poor mechanical strength due to solubility limits. However, plastic compression of collagen matrices is shown to significantly increase its mechanical properties. Here, confined compression of oligomeric, type I collagen matrices is utilized to resemble defining hallmarks seen in fibrotic tissue such as increased collagen content, fibril thickness, and bulk compressive modulus. Cardiomyocytes seeded on compressed matrices show a strong beating abrogation as observed in cardiac fibrosis. Gene expression analysis of selected fibrosis markers indicates fibrotic activation and cardiomyocyte maturation with regard to the existing literature. With these results, a promising first step toward a facile heart-on-chip model is presented to study cardiac fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Logan J. Worke
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN USA 47906
| | - Jeanne E. Barthold
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; University of Colorado Boulder; Boulder CO USA 80309
| | - Benjamin Seelbinder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; University of Colorado Boulder; Boulder CO USA 80309
| | - Tyler Novak
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN USA 47906
| | - Russell P. Main
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN USA 47906
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN USA 47906
| | - Sherry L. Harbin
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN USA 47906
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN USA 47906
| | - Corey P. Neu
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN USA 47906
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; University of Colorado Boulder; Boulder CO USA 80309
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6
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Ugolini GS, Visone R, Cruz-Moreira D, Redaelli A, Rasponi M. Tailoring cardiac environment in microphysiological systems: an outlook on current and perspective heart-on-chip platforms. Future Sci OA 2017; 3:FSO191. [PMID: 28670478 DOI: 10.4155/fsoa-2017-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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7
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Kobuszewska A, Tomecka E, Zukowski K, Jastrzebska E, Chudy M, Dybko A, Renaud P, Brzozka Z. Heart-on-a-Chip: An Investigation of the Influence of Static and Perfusion Conditions on Cardiac (H9C2) Cell Proliferation, Morphology, and Alignment. SLAS Technol 2017; 22:536-546. [PMID: 28430559 DOI: 10.1177/2472630317705610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Lab-on-a-chip systems are increasingly used as tools for cultures and investigation of cardiac cells. In this article, we present how the geometry of microsystems and microenvironmental conditions (static and perfusion) influence the proliferation, morphology, and alignment of cardiac cells (rat cardiomyoblasts-H9C2). Additionally, studies of cell growth after incubation with verapamil hydrochloride were performed. For this purpose, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)/glass microfluidic systems with three different geometries of microchambers (a circular chamber, a longitudinal channel, and three parallel microchannels separated by two rows of micropillars) were prepared. It was found that static conditions did not enhance the growth of H9C2 cells in the microsystems. On the contrary, perfusion conditions had an influence on division, morphology, and the arrangement of the cells. The highest number of cells, their parallel orientation, and their elongated morphology were obtained in the longitudinal microchannel. It showed that this kind of microsystem can be used to understand processes in heart tissue in detail and to test newly developed compounds applied in the treatment of cardiac diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kobuszewska
- 1 Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Microbioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewelina Tomecka
- 1 Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Microbioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kamil Zukowski
- 1 Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Microbioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Elzbieta Jastrzebska
- 1 Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Microbioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michal Chudy
- 1 Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Microbioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Artur Dybko
- 1 Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Microbioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Philippe Renaud
- 2 Microsystems Laboratory (LMIS4), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Zbigniew Brzozka
- 1 Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Microbioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
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Ribas J, Sadeghi H, Manbachi A, Leijten J, Brinegar K, Zhang YS, Ferreira L, Khademhosseini A. Cardiovascular Organ-on-a-Chip Platforms for Drug Discovery and Development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 2:82-96. [PMID: 28971113 DOI: 10.1089/aivt.2016.0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases are prevalent worldwide and are the most frequent causes of death in the United States. Although spending in drug discovery/development has increased, the amount of drug approvals has seen a progressive decline. Particularly, adverse side effects to the heart and general vasculature have become common causes for preclinical project closures, and preclinical models do not fully recapitulate human in vivo dynamics. Recently, organs-on-a-chip technologies have been proposed to mimic the dynamic conditions of the cardiovascular system-in particular, heart and general vasculature. These systems pay particular attention to mimicking structural organization, shear stress, transmural pressure, mechanical stretching, and electrical stimulation. Heart- and vasculature-on-a-chip platforms have been successfully generated to study a variety of physiological phenomena, model diseases, and probe the effects of drugs. Here, we review and discuss recent breakthroughs in the development of cardiovascular organs-on-a-chip platforms, and their current and future applications in the area of drug discovery and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Ribas
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Doctoral Program in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Hossein Sadeghi
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Amir Manbachi
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Jeroen Leijten
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Department of Developmental BioEngineering, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Katelyn Brinegar
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Yu Shrike Zhang
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Lino Ferreira
- CNC-Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ali Khademhosseini
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Physics, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Bioindustrial Technologies, College of Animal Bioscience and Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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