β-cell deletion of the PKm1 and PKm2 isoforms of pyruvate kinase in mice reveals their essential role as nutrient sensors for the KATP channel

Pyruvate kinase (PK) and the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) cycle play key roles in nutrient-stimulated K_ATP channel closure and insulin secretion. To identify the PK isoforms involved, we generated mice lacking β-cell PKm1, PKm2, and mitochondrial PEP carboxykinase (PCK2) that generates mitochondrial PEP. Glucose metabolism was found to generate both glycolytic and mitochondrially derived PEP, which triggers K_ATP closure through local PKm1 and PKm2 signaling at the plasma membrane. Amino acids, which generate mitochondrial PEP without producing glycolytic fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to allosterically activate PKm2, signal through PKm1 to raise ATP/ADP, close K_ATP channels, and stimulate insulin secretion. Raising cytosolic ATP/ADP with amino acids is insufficient to close K_ATP channels in the absence of PK activity or PCK2, indicating that K_ATP channels are primarily regulated by PEP that provides ATP via plasma membrane-associated PK, rather than mitochondrially derived ATP. Following membrane depolarization, the PEP cycle is involved in an 'off-switch' that facilitates K_ATP channel reopening and Ca²⁺ extrusion, as shown by PK activation experiments and β-cell PCK2 deletion, which prolongs Ca²⁺ oscillations and increases insulin secretion. In conclusion, the differential response of PKm1 and PKm2 to the glycolytic and mitochondrial sources of PEP influences the β-cell nutrient response, and controls the oscillatory cycle regulating insulin secretion.

The role of KATP channels in cerebral ischemic stroke and diabetes

ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels are ubiquitously expressed on the plasma membrane of cells in multiple organs, including the heart, pancreas and brain. KATP channels play important roles in controlling and regulating cellular functions in response to metabolic state, which are inhibited by ATP and activated by Mg-ADP, allowing the cell to couple cellular metabolic state (ATP/ADP ratio) to electrical activity of the cell membrane. KATP channels mediate insulin secretion in pancreatic islet beta cells, and controlling vascular tone. Under pathophysiological conditions, KATP channels play cytoprotective role in cardiac myocytes and neurons during ischemia and/or hypoxia. KATP channel is a hetero-octameric complex, consisting of four pore-forming Kir6.x and four regulatory sulfonylurea receptor SURx subunits. These subunits are differentially expressed in various cell types, thus determining the sensitivity of the cells to specific channel modifiers. Sulfonylurea class of antidiabetic drugs blocks KATP channels, which are neuroprotective in stroke, can be one of the high stoke risk factors for diabetic patients. In this review, we discussed the potential effects of KATP channel blockers when used under pathological conditions related to diabetics and cerebral ischemic stroke.

Testosterone protects female embryonic heart H9c2 cells against severe metabolic stress by activating estrogen receptors and up-regulating IES SUR2B

A recent clinical study demonstrated that a testosterone supplementation improves functional capacity in elderly female patients suffering from heart failure. These findings prompted us to consider possible mechanisms of testosterone-induced cardioprotection in females. To address this question we have used a pure female population of rat heart embryonic H9c2 cells. Pre-treatment of cells with testosterone for 24h significantly increased survival of H9c2 cells exposed to 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP), an inhibitor of oxidative phosphorylation. These cells expressed low level of androgen receptors and the effect of testosterone was not modified by hydroxyflutamide, an antagonist of androgen receptor. In contrast, cyclohexamide, an inhibitor of protein biosynthesis, and tamoxifene, a partial agonist of estrogen receptors, abolished cardioprotection afforded by testosterone. In addition, finasteride, an inhibitor of 5α-reductase, and anastrazole, an inhibitor of α-aromatase, also blocked testosterone-induced cytoprotection. Real time RT-PCR revealed that testosterone did not regulate the expression of nine subunits and accessory proteins of sarcolemmal ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channels. On the other hand, testosterone, as well as 17β-estradiol, up-regulated a putative mitochondrial K(ATP) channel subunit, mitochondrial sulfonylurea receptor 2B intraexonics splice variant (IES SUR2B), without affecting expression of IES SUR2A. Tamoxifene inhibited testosterone-induced up-regulation of IES SUR2B without affecting IES SUR2A. In conclusion, this study has shown that testosterone protect female embryonic heart H9c2 cells against severe metabolic stress by its conversion into metabolites that activate estrogen receptors and up-regulate IES SUR2B.