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Vozzi A, Martinez Levy A, Ronca V, Giorgi A, Ferrara S, Mancini M, Capotorto R, Cherubino P, Trettel A, Babiloni F, Di Flumeri G. Time-Dependent Analysis of Human Neurophysiological Activities during an Ecological Olfactory Experience. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1242. [PMID: 37759843 PMCID: PMC10526851 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13091242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that odors could affect humans at the psychophysiological level. Significant research has been done on odor perception and physiological mechanisms; however, this research was mainly performed in highly controlled conditions in order to highlight the perceptive phenomena and the correlated physiological responses in the time frame of milliseconds. The present study explored how human physiological activity evolves in response to different odor conditions during an ecological olfactory experience on a broader time scale (from 1 to 90 s). Two odors, vanilla and menthol, together with a control condition (blank) were employed as stimuli. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in four frequency bands of interest, theta, alpha, low beta, and high beta, and the electrodermal activity (EDA) of the skin conductance level and response (SCL and SCR) were investigated at five time points taken during: (i) the first ten seconds of exposure (short-term analysis) and (ii) throughout the entire exposure to each odor (90 s, long-term analysis). The results revealed significant interactions between the odor conditions and the time periods in the short-term analysis for the overall frontal activity in the theta (p = 0.03), alpha (p = 0.005), and low beta (p = 0.0067) bands, the frontal midline activity in the alpha (p = 0.015) and low beta (p = 0.02) bands, and the SCR component (p = 0.024). For the long-term effects, instead, only one EEG parameter, frontal alpha asymmetry, was significantly sensitive to the considered dimensions (p = 0.037). In conclusion, the present research determined the physiological response to different odor conditions, also demonstrating the sensitivity of the employed parameters in characterizing the dynamic of such response during the time. As an exploratory study, this work points out the relevance of considering the effects of continuous exposure instead of short stimulation when evaluating the human olfactory experience, providing insights for future studies in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Vozzi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic & Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
| | - Ana Martinez Levy
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Ronca
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
- Department of Computer, Control, and Management Engineering “Antonio Ruberti”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Giorgi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic & Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
| | - Silvia Ferrara
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
| | - Marco Mancini
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
| | - Rossella Capotorto
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Department of Computer, Control, and Management Engineering “Antonio Ruberti”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Patrizia Cherubino
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Arianna Trettel
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
| | - Fabio Babiloni
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Department of Computer Science, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Gianluca Di Flumeri
- BrainSigns Srl, Via Tirso, 14, 00198 Rome, Italy (F.B.); (G.D.F.)
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
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Abstract
Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of breast milk olfactory stimulation on pain response in premature infants during heel stick tests. Methods: A quasi-experimental randomized controlled trial was conducted in the neonatal intensive care unit of a tertiary-level hospital in Seoul, Korea. A breast milk group was provided olfactory stimulation with breast milk 30 seconds before the start of heel stick sampling, and a control group underwent heel stick sampling without olfactory stimulation. To evaluate infants' pain response, the heel stick procedure was video recorded, and pain response was assessed separately by two blinded research assistants using the Premature Infant Pain Scale (PIPS) through behavioral response, heart rate on physiological monitoring, and blood oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry through the video recording. Results: Forty-eight premature infants (gestational age, within 28-37 weeks, n = 24; control) were included in this study. The pain scores of the breast milk group were significantly lower than those of the control group (z = -2.04, p = 0.021). Conclusion: Breast milk odor may reduce pain in premature infants during heel stick tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- JiHyun Kim
- APN, Samsung Medical Center, Center of Nursing, Gangnam-gu, South Korea
| | - Su Jung Choi
- Graduate School of Clinical Nursing Science, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Gangnam-gu, South Korea
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Wang J, Zhang S, Liu W, Zhang Y, Hu Z, Sun Z, Di H. Olfactory Stimulation and the Diagnosis of Patients With Disorders of Consciousness: A Double-Blind, Randomized Clinical Trial. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:712891. [PMID: 35250440 PMCID: PMC8891647 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.712891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to determine whether behavioral responses elicited by olfactory stimulation are a predictor of conscious behavioral response and prognosis of patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC). METHODS Twenty-three DOC patients (8 unresponsive wakefulness syndrome [UWS]; 15 minimally conscious state [MCS]) were recruited for this study in which 1-Octen-3-ol (familiar neutral odor) and pyridine were used to test odor behavioral responses, and water was used as an odorless stimulus. One rater presented the three odors in front of each patient's nose randomly, and another one videotaped all behavioral responses (e.g., pouting, wrinkling nose, slightly shaking head, frowning, etc.). Two independent raters, blind to the stimuli and the patient's diagnosis, gave the behavioral results according to the recorded videos. One-, 3-, and 6-month follow-up evaluations were conducted to obtain a good prognostic value. RESULTS All MCS patients showed behavioral responses to the 1-Octen-3-ol stimulus; nine MCS and one UWS showed olfactory emotional responses to the pyridine, and two MCS showed olfactory emotional responses to the water stimulus. The incidence of behavioral response was significantly higher using 1-Octen-3-ol than it was for water by McNemar test (p < 0.001), significantly higher using pyridine than it was for water (p < 0.01). The χ2 test results indicated that there were significant differences between MCS and UWS to 1-Octen-3-ol (p < 0.001). For MCS patients, the incidence of behavioral response was no different between using 1-Octen-3-ol and pyridine (p > 0.05). There was no significant relationship between the olfactory behavioral response and the improvement of consciousness based on the χ2 test analysis (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION Olfactory stimuli, especially for the familiar neutral odor, might be effective for eliciting a conscious behavioral response and estimating the clinical diagnosis of DOC patients. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION [https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03732092], [identifier NCT03732092].
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wang
- International Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome and Consciousness Science Institute, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
- Shanghai Yongci Rehabilitation Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Shaoming Zhang
- Shanghai Yongci Rehabilitation Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenbin Liu
- Shanghai Yongci Rehabilitation Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Yao Zhang
- Shanghai Yongci Rehabilitation Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhouyao Hu
- International Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome and Consciousness Science Institute, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ziwei Sun
- International Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome and Consciousness Science Institute, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Haibo Di
- International Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome and Consciousness Science Institute, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
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Takai E, Aoyagi T, Ichikawa K, Matsuura Y, Kinoshita F, Takada H. [Effect of Olfactory Stimulation with Vanilla Odor on Degree of Gastric Myoelectrical Activity]. Nihon Eiseigaku Zasshi 2022; 77:n/a. [PMID: 35314575 DOI: 10.1265/jjh.20012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Olfactory stimulation elicits various physiological responses. However, few reports exist on the changes in gastric motility during olfactory stimulation in humans. In this regard, we carried out electrogastrography (EGG) to non-invasively measure the gastric myoelectrical activity, which regulates gastric motility. Moreover, subjective sensory evaluation was performed to determine which characteristics of vanilla odor at two different concentrations affect the myoelectrical activity. METHODS The participants consisted of eight healthy young males. EGG and electrocardiography (ECG) recordings were obtained approximately 20 min prior to and during olfactory stimulation. Autonomic nervous system activity was evaluated in terms of heart rate variability (HRV) and mean heart rate (HR) from ECG signals. EGG signals were analyzed by spectral analysis. In addition, the translation error was estimated by the Wayland algorithm. Sensory evaluation was performed using the Visual Analog Scale (VAS). RESULTS There were no significant differences in HRV and HR values and results of spectral analyses of EGG signals in all sample presentations. The translation error of EGG signals and the rating of perceived odor intensity significantly increased in a concentration-dependent manner. There was a strong positive correlation between translation error and odor intensity. CONCLUSIONS The correlation found between translation error and odor intensity suggests that the higher the vanilla odor intensity was perceived, the greater the randomness of EGG signals was. Our results suggest that the application of the Wayland algorithm to EGG signals can be used as an objective indicator in odor evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eiji Takai
- Soda Aromatic Co., Ltd
- Graduate School of Engineering, University of Fukui
| | | | | | - Yasuyuki Matsuura
- Graduate School of Engineering, University of Fukui
- Department of Cross Cultural Studies, Gifu City Women's College
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van der Linden CJ, Gupta P, Bhuiya AI, Riddick KR, Hossain K, Santoro SW. Olfactory Stimulation Regulates the Birth of Neurons That Express Specific Odorant Receptors. Cell Rep 2020; 33:108210. [PMID: 33027656 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are born throughout life, ostensibly solely to replace damaged OSNs. During differentiation, each OSN precursor “chooses,” out of hundreds of possibilities, a single odorant receptor (OR) gene, which defines the identity of the mature OSN. The relative neurogenesis rates of the hundreds of distinct OSN “subtypes” are thought to be constant, as they are determined by a stochastic process in which each OR is chosen with a fixed probability. Here, using histological, single-cell, and targeted affinity purification approaches, we show that closing one nostril in mice selectively reduces the number of newly generated OSNs of specific subtypes. Moreover, these reductions depend on an animal’s age and/or environment. Stimulation-dependent changes in the number of new OSNs are not attributable to altered rates of cell survival but rather production. Our findings indicate that the relative birth rates of distinct OSN subtypes depend on olfactory experience. In mammals, the odorant receptor identities of newly generated olfactory sensory neurons are thought to be determined by each progenitor cell’s random choice of a single receptor. Here, van der Linden et al. show that, in mice, the birth rates of neurons expressing a subset of receptors depend on olfactory stimulation.
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Chen YJ, Chen YT, Lin LC, Chen SC, Wang CT, Hsieh CM. Effects of Olfactory Stimulation on Swallowing Function in Taiwanese Older Adults. Gerontol Geriatr Med 2021; 7:23337214211015449. [PMID: 34104681 PMCID: PMC8155783 DOI: 10.1177/23337214211015449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This pretest-posttest pilot study was to examine the effects of how
olfactory stimulation (OS) influenced swallowing function in older
adults. Forty-four community-dwelling older residents (24 OS & 20
control) from southern Taiwan were recruited. Participants in the
intervention group administered pre-meal OS using odor and flavor
inhalation. The study found that physiological responses for different
food textures significantly differed between groups at post-test
(p ≤ .02). Within the
experimental group, swallowing function, and individual satisfaction
showed significant differences before and after the odor inhalation
over time (p < .01, ηp2 = 0.16–0.33). An individual’s satisfaction to their
own swallowing capacity was largely enhanced by the significant
interaction between time and group (F[1, 42] = 11.34,
p = .002, ηp2 = 0.21), but not for physiological response to OS
and swallowing function. The results suggest OS may be advantageous to
improving physiological response to OS, swallowing function and
satisfaction with swallowing capacity in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yea-Jyh Chen
- University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, USA
| | - Yea-Tzy Chen
- National Taipei University of Nursing and Health Sciences, Taipei, Taiwan.,University of Taipei, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Li-Chu Lin
- Cathay General Hospital (Sijhih Branch), Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Su-Chiu Chen
- National Taipei University of Nursing and Health Sciences, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Te Wang
- University of Taipei, Taipei, Taiwan.,Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, New Taipei, Taiwan
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Seddighi-Khavidak M, Tahan N, Akbarzadeh-Baghban A. Comparing the effects of vestibular rehabilitation with and without lavender oil scents as an olfactory stimulus on balance, fear of falling down and activities of daily living of people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized clinical trial. Disabil Rehabil 2020; 44:3132-3138. [PMID: 33305625 DOI: 10.1080/09638288.2020.1858352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the effect of using lavender oil as an olfactory stimulus with vestibular rehabilitation (VR) on balance, fear of falling down, and activities of daily living of people with multiple sclerosis. METHODS Forty participants were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. The experimental group did the VR exercises while smelling the lavender oil scents. The control group did the VR exercises without it. Both groups did the exercises in ten 45-min sessions. We assessed the participants with the timed up and go (TUG) test, Berg balance scale (BBS), fall efficacy scale - international (FES-I), and the 29-item multiple sclerosis impact scale (MSIS-29). We did the tests at the baseline and after the last exercise session. RESULTS The experimental group performed significantly better in the BBS (p = 0.007), TUG (p = 0.045), and FES-I (p = 0.016) tests as well as in the MSIS-29's psychological subscale (p = 0.034) than did the control group. CONCLUSIONS Using lavender oil as olfactory stimulus while doing the VR exercises can improve balance and reduce fear of falling down compared to doing the VR exercises without it in people with multiple sclerosis.Implications for rehabilitationIt seems that using lavender oil, as an olfactory stimulus, while doing vestibular rehabilitation exercises can improve balance and reduce fear of falling down in people with multiple sclerosis compared to doing the vestibular rehabilitation exercises without it.This treatment significantly alleviates the psychological effects of multiple sclerosis on daily life such as sleeping problems, feeling unwell, anxious, tense, depressed, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Seddighi-Khavidak
- Physiotherapy Research Center, School of Rehabilitation, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nahid Tahan
- Department of Physiotherapy, Loghman Hakim Hospital, School of Rehabilitation, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Akbarzadeh-Baghban
- Proteomics Research Center, Department of Biostatistics, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Abstract
Background: Various plant odours have been shown to decrease heart rate and increase parasympathetic nervous activity. However, 'innate' autonomic responses without the influences of experience, assumptions and prejudices of odours remains unclear. Aim: To clarify changes in heart rate and heart rate variability in infants while presenting different components of plant odours. Subjects and methods: The study participants included 17 infants aged 1-3.5 months. Each infant was exposed to the odours of α-pinene, D-limonene and air (as a control) for 2 minutes after a 2-minute resting period without any odours. The intervals of heartbeat (R-R intervals) were recorded during this process. Results: Heart rate significantly decreased in response to the odour of limonene. Frequency analysis of heart rate variability revealed that the power value at 0.2 Hz was significantly higher during the odour presentation of limonene compared to the baseline and that at 0.1 Hz and 0.4 Hz was significantly lower during α-pinene presentation. Conclusion: Autonomic responses to specific natural odours may be partly shaped innately, while underlying physiological mechanisms may be different between infants and adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Tsunetsugu
- Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Keita Ishibashi
- Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University , Chiba , Japan
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Brus M, Trouillet AC, Hellier V, Bakker J. Estradiol-induced neurogenesis in the female accessory olfactory bulb is required for the learning of the male odor. J Neurochem 2016; 138:457-68. [PMID: 27216894 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Odors processed by the main and accessory olfactory bulbs (MOB, AOB) are important for sexual behavior. Interestingly, both structures continue to receive new neurons during adulthood. A role for olfactory neurogenesis in sexual behavior in female mice has recently been shown and gonadal hormones such as estradiol can modulate adult neurogenesis. Therefore, we wanted to determine the role of estradiol in learning the odors of sexual partners and in the adult neurogenesis of female aromatase knockout mice (ArKO), unable to produce estradiol. Female wild-type (WT) and ArKO mice were exposed to male odors during 7 days, and olfactory preferences, cell proliferation, cell survival and functional involvement of newborn neurons were analyzed, using BrdU injections, in combination with a marker of cell activation (Zif268) and neuronal fate (doublecortin, NeuN). Behavioral tasks indicated that both WT and ArKO females were able to discriminate between the odors of two different males, but ArKO mice failed to learn the familiar male odor. Proliferation of newborn cells was reduced in ArKO mice only in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Olfactory exposure decreased cell survival in the AOB in WT females, suggesting a role for estradiol in a structure involved in sexual behavior. Finally, newborn neurons do not seem to be functionally involved in the AOB of ArKO mice compared with WT, when females were exposed to the odor of a familiar male, suggesting that estradiol-induced neurogenesis in the AOB is required for the learning of the male odor in female mice. Aromatase knockout mice (ArKO) presented deficits in olfactory preferences without affecting their olfactory discrimination abilities, and showed no functional involvement of newborn neurons in the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) in response to the odor of a familiar male. These results suggest that estradiol-induced neurogenesis in the female AOB is required for the learning of the male odor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maïna Brus
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliquée (GIGA) Neurosciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Anne-Charlotte Trouillet
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliquée (GIGA) Neurosciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Vincent Hellier
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliquée (GIGA) Neurosciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Julie Bakker
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliquée (GIGA) Neurosciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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Machado JC, Genaro G. Influence of olfactory enrichment on the exploratory behaviour of captive-housed domestic cats. Aust Vet J 2015; 92:492-8. [PMID: 25424764 DOI: 10.1111/avj.12253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the influence of olfactory stimulation on the exploratory activity of captive-housed domestic cats. METHODS To evaluate the cats' exploratory behaviour, we devised three treatments. We placed a wooden cube (0.027 m(3)) covered with a cloth treated with rat scent on the floor of each cat enclosure (T3). We also used a cloth-covered cube that did not have rat scent (T2) and observed the cats' behaviours in the same area without any object (T1). All cats participated in T1, T2, and T3. All treatments were performed equally and at the same time in two identical enclosures with 11 and 10 cats, respectively. The cats had lived in the enclosures since entering the permanent animal house. We used a continuous recording method associated with focal sampling to analyse the recordings. RESULTS Exploration was induced in the presence of a novel object, the cube, irrespective of whether the object was associated with the scent. In T3, we observed sex differences in exploration time: females spent more time exploring the scent-impregnated cube than males. Female cats also spent more time exploring the scent-impregnated cube than the scent-free cube. Cats in T3 had shorter latency for exploration, spent more time sniffing the ground and rubbing the cube, and had a higher frequency of urine spraying than those in T2. CONCLUSION Although exploratory behaviour was induced by novelty in the form of a new object, significant effects were observed in the presence of the scent, mainly regarding latency to explore, sex differences and sniffing, rubbing and urine spraying.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Machado
- Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Campus Universitario, Martelos, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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