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Rao G, Kahler A, Voth-Gaeddert LE, Cranford H, Libbey S, Galloway R, Molinari NA, Ellis EM, Yoder JS, Mattioli MC, Ellis BR. Microbial Characterization, Factors Contributing to Contamination, and Household Use of Cistern Water, U.S. Virgin Islands. ACS ES T Water 2022; 2:2634-2644. [PMID: 36530952 PMCID: PMC9745795 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Households in the United States Virgin Islands (USVI) heavily rely on roof-harvested rainwater stored in cisterns for their daily activities. However, there are insufficient data on cistern water microbiological and physicochemical characteristics to inform appropriate cistern water management. Cistern and kitchen tap water samples were collected from 399 geographically representative households across St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John and an administered survey captured household site and cistern characteristics and water use behaviors. Water samples were analyzed for Escherichia coli by culture, and a subset of cistern water samples (N = 47) were analyzed for Salmonella, Naegleria fowleri, pathogenic Leptospira, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and human-specific fecal contamination using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Associations between E. coli cistern contamination and cistern and site characteristics were evaluated to better understand possible mechanisms of contamination. E. coli was detected in 80% of cistern water samples and in 58% of kitchen tap samples. For the subset of samples tested by PCR, at least one of the pathogens was detected in 66% of cisterns. Our results suggest that covering overflow pipes with screens, decreasing animal presence at the household, and preventing animals or insects from entering the cisterns can decrease the likelihood of E. coli contamination in USVI cistern water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gouthami Rao
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Amy Kahler
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Lee E. Voth-Gaeddert
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Hannah Cranford
- United
States Virgin Islands Department of Health, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820, United States
| | - Stephen Libbey
- Love
City Strong, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands 00830, United States
| | - Renee Galloway
- Division
of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Noelle-Angelique Molinari
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Esther M. Ellis
- United
States Virgin Islands Department of Health, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820, United States
| | - Jonathan S. Yoder
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Mia C. Mattioli
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Brett R. Ellis
- United
States Virgin Islands Department of Health, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820, United States
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