Comparison of patterns of drug levels in head and body hair for medico-legal and workplace testing

This paper presents concentration ranges and positivity rates for the common drugs, alcohol markers, new psychoactive substances (NPS) and anabolic steroids tested in head hair (n = 138,352) and body hair (n = 9532) on samples of hair from medico-legal (n = 112,033) and workplace (n = 35,851) sectors tested in our laboratory. Statistically significant higher levels were found more often in the various types of body hair when compared with head hair, but fewer cases exhibited lower levels. For example, statistically significant higher levels were detected in leg hair for cannabinol, THC, methadone and EtG and in beard hair for THC, THC-COOH and 6-acetylmorphine. In contrast, significantly lower levels were detected in axilla hair for cannabinol, THC and for EDDP, but median levels of mephedrone and DHEA were higher. Overall, higher medium levels were detected in head hair samples tested in the UK when compared with those previously published for samples tested in Germany, indicating geographical differences in drug consumption. Recommendations are, firstly, that hair testing laboratories use the results of their own compiled previous positive results for guidance when interpreting hair testing results and, secondly, that laboratories periodically share and combine their accumulated data with other testing laboratories. The latter could be used to establish reference ranges associated with specific technical procedures which would improve interlaboratory comparability and improve laboratory testing services when interpreting hair testing results.

Determination of amphetamines, opioids, cocaine metabolites and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in urine using biocompatible solid-phase microextraction and ultra-performance LC-MS/MS

Background: Workplace drug testing primarily relies on urine analysis, targeting multiple compounds with varying physicochemical characteristics. Biocompatible solid-phase microextraction (BioSPME) is a miniaturized solid-phase extraction technique that enables the simultaneous extraction and preconcentration of analytes directly from the biological matrix. Methods: The BioSPME procedure consisted of the sequential extraction of 50-μl urine samples using LC Tips C18 in basic and acidic pH, followed by desorption with methanol and n-hexane, respectively. The extracts were analyzed by ultra-performance LC-MS/MS. Results: Intra-day precision was 1.2-8.6% and inter-day precision was 1.8-14.2%. Accuracy was 96.8-107.4%. The extraction yields were 62.8-109.4%. The matrix effects were -3.98% to 1%. Conclusion: BioSPME shows promise as an alternative method for preparing urine samples prior to drug measurement by ultra-performance LC-MS/MS.

Towards the Validation of an Observational Tool to Detect Impaired Drivers-An Online Video Study

Abuse of alcohol and other drugs is a major risk factor at work. To reduce this risk, workplace drug testing is performed in transportation and other industries. VERIFY, an observational method, is one of the key elements in a procedure adopted by the police of the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, for detecting impaired drivers. The observational method has been successfully applied by adequately trained police officers since 2014. The aim of this study is to examine the interrater reliability of the observational method, the effect of training in use of the method, and the role of having experience in the police force and traffic police force on the outcome when rating a driver’s impairment. For this purpose, driver impairment in staged road traffic controls presented in videos was rated by laypeople (n = 81), and police officers without (n = 146) and with training (n = 172) in the VERIFY procedure. In general, the results recorded for police officers with training revealed a moderate to very good interrater reliability of the observational method. Among the three groups, impaired drivers were best identified by officers with training (ranging between 82.6% and 89.5% correct identification). Trained officers reported a higher impairment severity of the impaired drivers than the other two groups, indicating that training increases sensitivity to signs of impairment. Our findings also suggest that online video technology could be helpful in identifying impaired drivers. Trained police officers could be connected to a road traffic control to make observations via live video. By this method efficiency and reliability in detecting abuse of alcohol and other drugs could be improved. Our findings also apply to workplace drug testing in general.

Can synthetic urine replace authentic urine to "beat" workplace drug testing?

Synthetic urine (SU), which was primarily utilized by drug testing laboratories as a matrix for quality control preparations, is now commercially sold and can be used to "fool" a positive drug test. To determine if SU can pass as authentic urine, we challenged Army urine drug testing specimen accessioning and testing procedures using eight different commercial SU products. Adulteration (Sciteck AdultaCheck^® 6) and Onsite SU (Synthetic UrineCheck™) test strips were also evaluated. Five of the eight SU were identified by physical observation. All SU products screened negative in the drug immunoassay and additionally passed the specimen validity testing (SVT) as authentic urine. Furthermore, SU was not detected as adulterated with the adulteration test strips (Sciteck AdultaCheck^® 6) but was successfully detected as SU with the On-site synthetic urine (Synthetic UrineCheck™). To deter SU use, direct observation, as utilized by the military, may be recommended during the collection process.

European guidelines for workplace drug and alcohol testing in hair

Guidelines for Legally Defensible Workplace Drug Testing have been prepared and updated by the European Workplace Drug Testing Society (EWDTS). They are based on the 2010 version published by Pascal Kintz and Ronald Agius (Guidelines for European workplace drug and alcohol testing in hair. Drug Test. Anal. 2010, 2, 367) and in concordance with the Society of Hair Testing guidelines (Society of Hair Testing guidelines for drug testing in hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 2012, 218, 20-24). The European Guidelines are designed to establish best practice procedures whilst allowing individual countries to operate within the requirements of national customs and legislation. The EWDTS recommends that all European laboratories that undertake legally defensible workplace drug testing use these guidelines as a template for accreditation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[Chemical analysis of wastewater as a new way of monitoring drugs and medicines consumption at workplace]

The available information on the quality and frequency of illegal psychoactive substances used or medicines misused by workers, are often out of date at the time of its publication. This is due to the dynamic introduction of new synthetic drugs on the black market, changes in trends in the recreational use of medicines and the lack of readily available and reliable tests for fast identification. Strategy for detection of narcotic and non-medical psychoactive drugs use at workplace should embrace all possible sources of information. Classical sources of information on the use of psychoactive substances at the workplace include: statistical data (general information on trends and magnitude of drug and medicine addiction collected by the Polish National Police, the National Bureau for Drug Prevention and emergency medical services), surveys, psychomotor tests and qualitative and quantitative analyses of biological material. Of the new and promising methods, used throughout the world in recent years, chemical-toxicological analysis of surface water and wastewater deserve special mention. An increasing interest in the study of urban waste water can significantly complement the source of knowledge about drug and medicine addiction using obtainable conventional methods. In recent years, a municipal wastewater analysis has become a new and very promising way of collecting updated information on the use of psychoactive substances and medicines. It seems that this kind of study may play an important role in the ongoing monitoring of drug and/or medicines use by selected groups of population (e.g., students, military, firemen, policemen, etc.).