Risk of retinopathy in women with pregnancy-induced hypertension: a nationwide population-based cohort study of 9-year follow-up after delivery

BACKGROUND

The retina is potentially associated with several physiological, hormonal, and metabolic changes during pregnancy. The few available epidemiologic studies of ocular changes in pregnancy have mainly concerned retinopathies. Pregnancy-induced hypertension, which leads to ocular manifestations including blurred vision, photopsia, scotoma, and diplopia, might induce reactive changes in the retinal vessels. Although several studies have suggested the existence of pregnancy-induced hypertension-related retinal ocular disease, there are few large cohort studies on this topic.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the risk of major retinal diseases including central serous chorioretinopathy, diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, retinal artery occlusion, and hypertensive retinopathy in the long-term postpartum stage according to the presence of previous pregnancy-induced hypertension in a large cohort based on the Korean National Health Insurance Database.

STUDY DESIGN

On the basis of Korean health data, 909,520 patients who delivered from 2012 to 2013 were analyzed. Among them, patients who had previous ocular diseases or hypertension and multiple births were excluded. Finally, 858,057 mothers were assessed for central serous chorioretinopathy (ICD-10: H35.70), diabetic retinopathy (ICD-10: H36.0, E10.31, E10.32, E11.31, E11.32, E12.31, E13.31, E13.32, E14.31, E14.32), retinal vein occlusion (ICD-10: H34.8), retinal artery occlusion (ICD-10: H34.2), and hypertensive retinopathy (ICD-10: H35.02) for 9 years after delivery. Enrolled patients were divided into 2 groups: 10,808 patients with and 847,249 without pregnancy-induced hypertension. The primary outcomes were the incidence of central serous chorioretinopathy, diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, retinal artery occlusion, and hypertensive retinopathy 9 years after delivery. Clinical variables were age, parity, cesarean delivery, gestational diabetes mellitus, and postpartum hemorrhage. In addition, pregestational diabetes mellitus, kidney diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, and cardiovascular diseases were adjusted.

RESULTS

Postpartum retinal disease during the 9 years after delivery and total retinal diseases showed higher rates in patients with pregnancy-induced hypertension. In detail, the rates of central serous chorioretinopathy (0.3% vs 0.1%), diabetic retinopathy (1.79% vs 0.5%), retinal vein occlusion (0.19% vs 0.1%), and hypertensive retinopathy (0.62% vs 0.05%) were higher than those found in patients without pregnancy-induced hypertension. After adjusting for confounding factors, pregnancy-induced hypertension was associated with development of postpartum retinopathy, with a >2-fold increase (hazard ratio, 2.845; 95% confidence interval, 2.54-3.188). Furthermore, pregnancy-induced hypertension affected the development of central serous chorioretinopathy (hazard ratio, 3.681; 95% confidence interval, 2.667-5.082), diabetic retinopathy (hazard ratio, 2.326; 95% confidence interval, 2.013-2.688), retinal vein occlusion (hazard ratio, 2.241; 95% confidence interval, 1.491-3.368), and hypertensive retinopathy (hazard ratio, 11.392; 95% confidence interval, 8.771-14.796) after delivery.

CONCLUSION

A history of pregnancy-induced hypertension increases the risk of central serous chorioretinopathy, diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, and hypertensive retinopathy according to 9-year long-term ophthalmologic follow-up.

Risk Stratification on Systemic Target Organ Involvement Associated with Hypertensive Retinopathy

BACKGROUND

Hypertensive retinopathy is a common complication among people with hypertension. The current study assessed the risk stratification on systemic target organ involvement of people with hypertensive retinopathy.

METHODS

In a hospital- based cross-sectional study conducted at a tertiary referral eye institute in Nepal, we included consecutive people ≥ 31 years with essential hypertension. Details of histories and systemic target organ involvements were documented. People with un-gradable retinal findings of hypertensive retinopathy and prior retinal surgery were excluded. All participants underwent comprehensive eye examination, including dilated fundus examination. Hypertensive retinopathy was classified by Modified Scheie classification. Multivariate analysis was performed to identify the risks for hypertensive retinopathy and target organ involvement.

RESULTS

The study recruited 312 subjects. The mean age was 63.68 ± 12.63 years. The mean duration of hypertension was 7.0 ± 6.5 years. Hypertensive retinopathy was detected in 83.7% (n=261) people and 63.5% (n= 198) had grade 1 hypertensive retinopathy. Target organ involvement was detected in 20.5% (n =64) people. These included cardiac (12.5%; n=39), central nervous (5.1%; n= 16), and renal (4.5%; n=14) systems. In multivariate analysis, concurrent hyperlipidaemia was significantly associated with hypertensive retinopathy and target organ involvement. Target organ involvement increased with the severity of hypertensive retinopathy.

CONCLUSIONS

Over four-fifths of people with hypertension had hypertensive retinopathy and one-fifth had other systemic target organ involvements. Severity of hypertensive retinopathy and concurrent hyperlipidaemia were associated with target organ involvement. Hypertensive retinopathy can be considered for risk stratification to other target organ involvement in a clinical setting.

Effects of Caloric Restriction Diet on Arterial Hypertension and Endothelial Dysfunction

The most common manifestation of cardiovascular (CV) diseases is the presence of arterial hypertension (AH), which impacts on endothelial dysfunction. CV risk is associated with high values of systolic and diastolic blood pressure and depends on the presence of risk factors, both modifiable and not modifiable, such as overweight, obesity, physical exercise, smoking, age, family history, and gender. The main target organs affected by AH are the heart, brain, vessels, kidneys, and eye retina. AH onset can be counteracted or delayed by adopting a proper diet, characterized by a low saturated fat and sodium intake, a high fruit and vegetable intake, a moderate alcohol consumption, and achieving and maintaining over time the ideal body weight. In this review, we analyzed how a new nutritional approach, named caloric restriction diet (CRD), can provide a significant reduction in blood pressure values and an improvement of the endothelial dysfunction. In fact, CRD is able to counteract aging and delay the onset of CV and neurodegenerative diseases through the reduction of body fat mass, systolic and diastolic values, free radicals production, and oxidative stress. Currently, there are few studies on CRD effects in the long term, and it would be advisable to perform observational studies with longer follow-up.

Aortic stiffness is not only associated with structural but also functional parameters of retinal microcirculation

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that alterations in large arteries are associated with microvascular remodelling and decreased retinal capillary blood flow.

METHODS

The study group comprised of 88 patients with essential hypertension and 32 healthy controls. Retinal microcirculation was evaluated by scanning laser Doppler flowmetry. Macrovascular changes were assessed on the basis of arterial stiffness measurement (carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity), its hemodynamic consequences (central pulse pressure, augmentation pressure, augmentation index) and intima media thickness of common carotid artery.

RESULTS

Pulse wave velocity was inversely correlated to mean retinal capillary blood flow in hypertensive patients (R = -0.32, p < 0.01). This relationship remained significant in multivariate regression analysis after adjustment for age, sex, central systolic blood pressure (BP) and body mass index (β = -31.27, p < 0.001). Lumen diameter (LD) of retinal arterioles was significantly smaller in hypertensive then normotensive subjects (79.4 vs. 83.8, p = 0.03). Central and brachial systolic, diastolic and mean BPs were significantly correlated with LD and outer diameter of retinal arterioles. The relationship between LD and central BPs remained significant in multivariate analysis (β = -0.15, p = 0.03 for cSBP; β = -0.22, p = 0.04 for cDBP; β = -0.21, p = 0.03 for cMBP). Moreover, in a subgroup with cardiac damage central and brachial pulse pressure were positively associated with retinal wall thickness, wall cross sectional area, and wall to lumen ratio.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the study provides a strong evidence that microcirculation is coupled with macrocirculation not only in terms of structural but also functional parameters.

Hypertensive crisis with 2 target organ impairment induced by glycyrrhizin: A case report

RATIONALE

Glycyrrhizin is the main active component of licorice. Licorice and glycyrrhizin induced hypertension has been widely reported, yet licorice and glycyrrhizin induced hypertensive crisis has been rarely known.

PATIENT CONCERNS

The case of this report was a 47-year-old woman, who took 225 mg of glycyrrhizin daily for 3 years due to primary biliary cholangitis. She was found to have a dramatically elevated blood pressure of about 230/110 mmHg without a history of hypertension and was referred to the emergency department.

DIAGNOSES

Hypokalemia, hypertensive retinopathy, and nephropathy were found during the following work-up. Since no other risk factors of hypertension were identified, she was suspected to have glycyrrhizin induced pseudo-hyperaldosteronism.

INTERVENTIONS

Glycyrrhizin was discontinued. Intravenous sodium nitroprusside was used during the first few days. Nifedipine and irbesartan were taken after discharge, and the dosage was reduced gradually under supervision.

OUTCOMES

She stopped all the anti-hypertensive drugs 6 months since glycyrrhizin was stopped. Her blood pressure was about 110/60 mmHg after repetitive measurement. Her serum potassium and urine albumin/creatinine ratio were also normalized.

LESSONS

Licorice and glycyrrhizin induced hypertension due to pseudo-hyperaldosteronism has been widely reported, yet only 3 cases reported that excessive consumption of licorice could lead to hypertensive emergencies. This is the first case that glycyrrhizin induced hypertensive crisis with target organ impairment. By presenting this case, we remind clinicians of glycyrrhizin induced hypertension, a condition which could lead to medical emergencies.

Effects of intensive blood pressure lowering on cardiovascular and renal outcomes: updated systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Recent hypertension guidelines have reversed previous recommendations for lower blood pressure targets in high-risk patients, such as those with cardiovascular disease, renal disease, or diabetes. This change represents uncertainty about whether more intensive blood pressure-lowering strategies are associated with greater reductions in risk of major cardiovascular and renal events. We aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of intensive blood pressure-lowering strategies.

METHODS

For this updated systematic review and meta-analysis, we systematically searched MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Library for trials published between Jan 1, 1950, and Nov 3, 2015. We included randomised controlled trials with at least 6 months' follow-up that randomly assigned participants to more intensive versus less intensive blood pressure-lowering treatment, with different blood pressure targets or different blood pressure changes from baseline. We did not use any age or language restrictions. We did a meta-analysis of blood pressure reductions on relative risk (RR) of major cardiovascular events (myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, or cardiovascular death, separately and combined), and non-vascular and all-cause mortality, end-stage kidney disease, and adverse events, as well as albuminuria and progression of retinopathy in trials done in patients with diabetes.

FINDINGS

We identified 19 trials including 44,989 participants, in whom 2496 major cardiovascular events were recorded during a mean 3·8 years of follow-up (range 1·0-8·4 years). Our meta-analysis showed that after randomisation, patients in the more intensive blood pressure-lowering treatment group had mean blood pressure levels of 133/76 mm Hg, compared with 140/81 mm Hg in the less intensive treatment group. Intensive blood pressure-lowering treatment achieved RR reductions for major cardiovascular events (14% [95% CI 4-22]), myocardial infarction (13% [0-24]), stroke (22% [10-32]), albuminuria (10% [3-16]), and retinopathy progression (19% [0-34]). However, more intensive treatment had no clear effects on heart failure (15% [95% CI -11 to 34]), cardiovascular death (9% [-11 to 26]), total mortality (9% [-3 to 19]), or end-stage kidney disease (10% [-6 to 23]). The reduction in major cardiovascular events was consistent across patient groups, and additional blood pressure lowering had a clear benefit even in patients with systolic blood pressure lower than 140 mm Hg. The absolute benefits were greatest in trials in which all enrolled patients had vascular disease, renal disease, or diabetes. Serious adverse events associated with blood pressure lowering were only reported by six trials and had an event rate of 1·2% per year in intensive blood pressure-lowering group participants, compared with 0·9% in the less intensive treatment group (RR 1·35 [95% CI 0·93-1·97]). Severe hypotension was more frequent in the more intensive treatment regimen (RR 2·68 [1·21-5·89], p=0·015), but the absolute excess was small (0·3% vs 0·1% per person-year for the duration of follow-up).

INTERPRETATION

Intensive blood pressure lowering provided greater vascular protection than standard regimens. In high-risk patients, there are additional benefits from more intensive blood pressure lowering, including for those with systolic blood pressure below 140 mmHg. The net absolute benefits of intensive blood pressure lowering in high-risk individuals are large.

FUNDING

National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia.

[Hypertensive retinopathy in the end-stage renal failure – study case]

The case of 26-year-old woman with a transient deterioration of binocular vision secondary to chronic renal failure due to glomerulonephritis is presented. The patient reported the onset of the disease at the age of 2. As her kidney disease was poorly controlled, she developed renal hypertension followed by bilateral hypertensive retinopathy. The patient was hospitalized in the Department of Nephrology, where she received dialyses and her blood pressure was normalised. The follow up in the Ophthalmology Clinic was continued for 9 months. The treatment of her primary disease resulted in a significant resolution of retinopathy and improved her visual acuity.

A hypertensive emergency with acute visual impairment due to excessive liquorice consumption

Hypokalaemic hypertension is the classical presentation of primary hyperaldosteronism but may also result from other mineralocorticoid activity, such as liquorice ingestion. Onset of hypertension as well as serum renin and aldosterone levels are central for the diagnosis. Liquorice ingestion has been reported to induce hypertension, hypokalaemia and metabolic alkalosis due to inhibition of the enzyme 11-β-hydroxy steroiddehydrogenase 2. Here, we report the case of a hypertensive emergency with acute visual impairment due to hypertensive retinopathy in clear conjunction with a considerable consumption of liquorice.

Hypertensive crises in the adolescent: evaluation of suspected renovascular hypertension

Hypertensive crises can be divided into two categories as hypertensive emergency and hypertensive urgency. Most authorities have defined hypertensive emergency as a situation that requires immediate reduction in blood pressure (BP) with parenteral agents because of acute or progressive target organ damage, whereas hypertensive urgency is a situation with markedly elevated BP but without severe symptoms or progressive target organ damage, wherein the BP should be reduced within hours, often with oral agents. Adolescent with hypertension should be suspected of having renovascular hypertension in spite of other causes. This case is presenting a 16-year-old boy with hypertensive crises due to suspected renovascular hypertension. His blood pressure was 240/120 at admission with hypertensive retinopathy grade III and there was increase in creatinine after administering ACE-inhibitor but his renal arteriography revealed normal, other physical examination and laboratory findings was normal. Regarding these findings, the conclusion was this patient got essential hypertension. As many hypertensive crises occur in any ages, clinicians should aware the possibility of renovascular hypertension in young patients with hypertensive crises. An early detection and urgent treatment are needed to prevent the implication of progressive target organ damage.

Dutch guideline for the management of hypertensive crisis -- 2010 revision

Hypertensive crises are divided into hypertensive urgencies and emergencies. Together they form a heterogeneous group of acute hypertensive disorders depending on the presence or type of target organs involved. Despite better treatment options for hypertension, hypertensive crisis and its associated complications remain relatively common. In the Netherlands the number of patients starting renal replacement therapy because of 'malignant hypertension' has increased in the past two decades. In 2003, the first Dutch guideline on hypertensive crisis was released to allow a standardised evidence-based approach for patients presenting with a hypertensive crisis. In this paper we give an overview of the current management of hypertensive crisis and discuss several important changes incorporated in the 2010 revision. These changes include a modification in terminology replacing 'malignant hypertension' with 'hypertensive crisis with retinopathy and reclassification of hypertensive crisis with retinopathy under hypertensive emergencies instead of urgencies. With regard to the treatment of hypertensive emergencies, nicardipine instead of nitroprusside or labetalol is favoured for the management of perioperative hypertension, whereas labetalol has become the drug of choice for the treatment of hypertension associated with pre-eclampsia. For the treatment of hypertensive urgencies, oral administration of nifedipine retard instead of captopril is recommended as first-line therapy. In addition, a section on the management of hypertensive emergencies according to the type of target organ involved has been added. Efforts to increase the awareness and treatment of hypertension in the population at large may lower the incidence of hypertensive crisis and its complications.

[Current approach for hypertension retinopathy screening and diagnosis]

Literature review is devoted to early diagnosis and screening of hypertension retinopathy (HR). The data of large epidemiological trials are presented, they prove an association of HR with stroke, coronary heart disease, risk stratification of these conditions is estimated, besides effect of blood pressure level on HR signs onset is studied. Pathophysiology of main clinical stages of retina impairment in arterial hypertension is discussed. Early diagnosis using ophthalmoscopy, fundus photo, hemodynamics and hydrodynamics studies is of great importance. Using classification clinicians can control and monitor patients without HR signs, screen risk factors of cardiovascular diseases in patients with mild HR. According to classification the following stages are presented: no HR signs, mild and moderate stages and malignant HR.