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Equey T, Pastor A, de la Torre Fornell R, Thomas A, Giraud S, Thevis M, Kuuranne T, Baume N, Barroso O, Aikin R. Application of the Athlete Biological Passport Approach to the Detection of Growth Hormone Doping. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2022; 107:649-659. [PMID: 34726230 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgab799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Because of its anabolic and lipolytic properties, growth hormone (GH) use is prohibited in sport. Two methods based on population-derived decision limits are currently used to detect human GH (hGH) abuse: the hGH Biomarkers Test and the Isoforms Differential Immunoassay. OBJECTIVE We tested the hypothesis that longitudinal profiling of hGH biomarkers through application of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) has the potential to flag hGH abuse. METHODS Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and procollagen III peptide (P-III-NP) distributions were obtained from 7 years of anti-doping data in elite athletes (n = 11 455) and applied as priors to analyze individual profiles from an hGH administration study in recreational athletes (n = 35). An open-label, randomized, single-site, placebo-controlled administration study was carried out with individuals randomly assigned to 4 arms: placebo, or 3 different doses of recombinant hGH. Serum samples were analyzed for IGF-1, P-III-NP, and hGH isoforms and the performance of a longitudinal, ABP-based approach was evaluated. RESULTS An ABP-based approach set at a 99% specificity level flagged 20/27 individuals receiving hGH treatment, including 17/27 individuals after cessation of the treatment. ABP sensitivity ranged from 12.5% to 71.4% across the hGH concentrations tested following 7 days of treatment, peaking at 57.1% to 100% after 21 days of treatment, and was maintained between 37.5% and 71.4% for the low and high dose groups 1 week after cessation of treatment. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrate that longitudinal profiling of hGH biomarkers can provide suitable performance characteristics for use in anti-doping programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan Equey
- World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Antoni Pastor
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
- Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBEROBN), Madrid, Spain
- University Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre Fornell
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
- Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBEROBN), Madrid, Spain
- University Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andreas Thomas
- Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sylvain Giraud
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Genève and Lausanne, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Mario Thevis
- Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Genève and Lausanne, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Baume
- World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Osquel Barroso
- World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Reid Aikin
- World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Abstract
CONTEXT The lifetime prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use is estimated at 1% to 5% worldwide. AAS use occurs primarily male elite athletes and men who want a muscular appearance. The evidence for effective, safe management of AAS cessation and withdrawal is weak. DESIGN Key studies were extracted from PubMed (1990-2018) and Google Scholar with reference searches from relevant retrieved articles. RESULTS The proven adverse effects of AASs include suppression of the gonadal axis and infertility, hirsutism and defeminization in women, and erythrocytosis. Alkylated AASs that are taken orally may cause hepatopathy. There is an association between high-dosage AAS use and increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Clues for AAS use include very low serum high-density cholesterol and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations and unexplained erythrocytosis. For elite athletes, the biological passport (monitoring of blood or urinary androgen and androgen precursor concentrations after determining the athlete's baseline) is useful for detecting AAS use. For nonelite athletes, the best method to confirm AAS use is to inquire in a nonjudgmental manner. Cessation of chronic AAS use is associated with a withdrawal syndrome of anxiety and depression. CONCLUSIONS Men who use AASs <1 year typically recover normal hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis function within 1 year after cessation. Men who have infertility due to high-dosage AAS use ≥1 year might benefit from short-term treatment with clomiphene or human chorionic gonadotropin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley D Anawalt
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
- Correspondence and Reprint Requests: Bradley D. Anawalt, MD, Department of Medicine, University of Washington Medical Center, Box 356420, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, Washington 98195. E-mail:
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Dalton RL, Sowinski RJ, Grubic TJ, Collins PB, Coletta AM, Reyes AG, Sanchez B, Koozehchian M, Jung YP, Rasmussen C, Greenwood M, Murano PS, Earnest CP, Kreider RB. Hematological and Hemodynamic Responses to Acute and Short-Term Creatine Nitrate Supplementation. Nutrients 2017; 9:nu9121359. [PMID: 29244743 PMCID: PMC5748809 DOI: 10.3390/nu9121359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In a double-blind, crossover, randomized and placebo-controlled trial; 28 men and women ingested a placebo (PLA), 3 g of creatine nitrate (CNL), and 6 g of creatine nitrate (CNH) for 6 days. Participants repeated the experiment with the alternate supplements after a 7-day washout. Hemodynamic responses to a postural challenge, fasting blood samples, and bench press, leg press, and cycling time trial performance and recovery were assessed. Data were analyzed by univariate, multivariate, and repeated measures general linear models (GLM). No significant differences were found among treatments for hemodynamic responses, clinical blood markers or self-reported side effects. After 5 days of supplementation, one repetition maximum (1RM) bench press improved significantly for CNH (mean change, 95% CI; 6.1 [3.5, 8.7] kg) but not PLA (0.7 [-1.6, 3.0] kg or CNL (2.0 [-0.9, 4.9] kg, CNH, p = 0.01). CNH participants also tended to experience an attenuated loss in 1RM strength during the recovery performance tests following supplementation on day 5 (PLA: -9.3 [-13.5, -5.0], CNL: -9.3 [-13.5, -5.1], CNH: -3.9 [-6.6, -1.2] kg, p = 0.07). After 5 days, pre-supplementation 1RM leg press values increased significantly, only with CNH (24.7 [8.8, 40.6] kg, but not PLA (13.9 [-15.7, 43.5] or CNL (14.6 [-0.5, 29.7]). Further, post-supplementation 1RM leg press recovery did not decrease significantly for CNH (-13.3 [-31.9, 5.3], but did for PLA (-30.5 [-53.4, -7.7] and CNL (-29.0 [-49.5, -8.4]). CNL treatment promoted an increase in bench press repetitions at 70% of 1RM during recovery on day 5 (PLA: 0.4 [-0.8, 1.6], CNL: 0.9 [0.35, 1.5], CNH: 0.5 [-0.2, 0.3], p = 0.56), greater leg press endurance prior to supplementation on day 5 (PLA: -0.2 [-1.6, 1.2], CNL: 0.9 [0.2, 1.6], CNH: 0.2 [-0.5, 0.9], p = 0.25) and greater leg press endurance during recovery on day 5 (PLA: -0.03 [-1.2, 1.1], CNL: 1.1 [0.3, 1.9], CNH: 0.4 [-0.4, 1.2], p = 0.23). Cycling time trial performance (4 km) was not affected. Results indicate that creatine nitrate supplementation, up to a 6 g dose, for 6 days, appears to be safe and provide some ergogenic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan L Dalton
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Ryan J Sowinski
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Tyler J Grubic
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Patrick B Collins
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Adriana M Coletta
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Aimee G Reyes
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Brittany Sanchez
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Majid Koozehchian
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Yanghoon P Jung
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Christopher Rasmussen
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Mike Greenwood
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
| | - Peter S Murano
- Institute for Obesity and Program Evaluation, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Conrad P Earnest
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
- Clinical Science Division, Nutrabolt, 3891 S. Traditions Drive, Bryan, TX 77807, USA.
| | - Richard B Kreider
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4253, USA.
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Kayser B, Tolleneer J. Ethics of a relaxed antidoping rule accompanied by harm-reduction measures. J Med Ethics 2017; 43:282-286. [PMID: 28154003 DOI: 10.1136/medethics-2015-102659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Harm-reduction approaches are used to reduce the burden of risky human behaviour without necessarily aiming to stop the behaviour. We discuss what an introduction of harm reduction for doping in sports would mean in parallel with a relaxation of the antidoping rule. We analyse what is ethically at stake in the following five levels: (1) What would it mean for the athlete (the self)? (2) How would it impact other athletes (the other)? (3) How would it affect the phenomenon of sport as a game and its fair play basis (the play)? (4) What would be the consequences for the spectator and the role of sports in society (the display)? and (5) What would it mean for what some consider as essential to being human (humanity)? For each level, we present arguments for and against doping and then discuss what a harm-reduction approach, within a dynamic regime of a partially relaxed antidoping rule, could imply. We find that a harm-reduction approach is morally defensible and potentially provides a viable escape out of the impasse resulting from the impossibility of attaining the eradication of doping. The following question remains to be answered: Would a more relaxed position, when combined with harm-reduction measures, indeed have less negative consequences for society than today's all-out antidoping efforts that aim for abstinence? We provide an outline of an alternative policy, allowing a cautious step-wise change to answer this question and then discuss the ethical aspects of such a policy change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bengt Kayser
- ISSUL, Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- FABER, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Tolleneer
- FABER, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Church DD, Hoffman JR, LaMonica MB, Riffe JJ, Hoffman MW, Baker KM, Varanoske AN, Wells AJ, Fukuda DH, Stout JR. The effect of an acute ingestion of Turkish coffee on reaction time and time trial performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2015; 12:37. [PMID: 26445565 PMCID: PMC4595106 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-015-0098-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to examine the ergogenic benefits of Turkish coffee consumed an hour before exercise. In addition, metabolic, cardiovascular, and subjective measures of energy, focus and alertness were examined in healthy, recreationally active adults who were regular caffeine consumers (>200 mg per day). METHODS Twenty males (n = 10) and females (n = 10), age 24.1 ± 2.9 y; height 1.70 ± 0.09 m; body mass 73.0 ± 13.0 kg (mean ± SD), ingested both Turkish coffee [3 mg · kg(-1) BW of caffeine, (TC)], and decaffeinated Turkish coffee (DC) in a double-blind, randomized, cross-over design. Performance measures included a 5 km time trial, upper and lower body reaction to visual stimuli, and multiple object tracking. Plasma caffeine concentrations, blood pressure (BP), heart rate and subjective measures of energy, focus and alertness were assessed at baseline (BL), 30-min following coffee ingestion (30+), prior to endurance exercise (PRE) and immediately-post 5 km (IP). Metabolic measures [VO2, V E , and respiratory exchange rate (RER)] were measured during the 5 km. RESULTS Plasma caffeine concentrations were significantly greater during TC (p < 0.001) at 30+, PRE, and IP compared to DC. Significantly higher energy levels were reported at 30+ and PRE for TC compared to DC. Upper body reaction performance (p = 0.023) and RER (p = 0.019) were significantly higher for TC (85.1 ± 11.6 "hits," and 0.98 ± 0.05 respectively) compared to DC (81.2 ± 13.7 "hits," and 0.96 ± 0.05, respectively). Although no significant differences (p = 0.192) were observed in 5 km run time, 12 of the 20 subjects ran faster (p = 0.012) during TC (1662 ± 252 s) compared to DC (1743 ± 296 s). Systolic BP was significantly elevated during TC in comparison to DC. No other differences (p > 0.05) were noted in any of the other performance or metabolic measures. CONCLUSIONS Acute ingestion of TC resulted in a significant elevation in plasma caffeine concentrations within 30-min of consumption. TC ingestion resulted in significant performance benefits in reaction time and an increase in subjective feelings of energy in habitual caffeine users. No significant differences were noted in time for the 5 km between trials, however 60 % of the participants performed the 5 km faster during the TC trial and were deemed responders. When comparing TC to DC in responders only, significantly faster times were noted when consuming TC compared to DC. No significant benefits were noted in measures of cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- David D. Church
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Jay R. Hoffman
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Michael B. LaMonica
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Joshua J. Riffe
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Mattan W. Hoffman
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Kayla M. Baker
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Alyssa N. Varanoske
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Adam J. Wells
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - David H. Fukuda
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
| | - Jeffrey R. Stout
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, 12494 University Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 USA
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Dib J, Schlörer N, Schänzer W, Thevis M. Studies on the collision-induced dissociation of adipoR agonists after electrospray ionization and their implementation in sports drug testing. J Mass Spectrom 2015; 50:407-417. [PMID: 25800023 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
AdipoR agonists are small, orally active molecules capable of mimicking the protein adiponectin, which represents an adipokine with antidiabetic and antiatherogenic effects. Two adiponectin receptors were reported in the literature referred to as adipoR1 and adipoR2. Activation of these receptors stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis and results in an improved oxidative metabolism (via adipoR1) and increased insulin sensitivity (via adipoR2). Hence, adipoR agonists are potentially performance enhancing substances and targets of proactive and preventive anti-doping measures. In this study, two adipoR agonists termed AdipoRon and 112254 as well as two isotopically labeled internal standards (ISTDs) were synthesized in three-step reactions. The products were fully characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), mass spectrometry (MS) and density functional theory (DFT) computation. Collision-induced dissociation pathways following electrospray ionization were suggested based on the determined elemental compositions of product ions, comparison to product ions derived from labeled analogs (ISTDs), H/D-exchange experiments and the results of DFT calculations. The most abundant product ions were found at m/z 174, tentatively assigned to protonated 1-benzyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine for AdipoRon, and m/z 207, suggested as protonated 1-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazine, for 112254. Notably, the loss of the heterocyclic ring (i.e. piperazine and piperidine, respectively) in a supposedly intramolecular elimination reaction was observed in both cases. A qualitative determination of both AdipoR agonists in human plasma was established and fully validated for doping control purposes. Validation items such as recovery (86-89%), specificity, linearity, lower limit of detection (1 ng/ml), intraday (3-18%) and interday (5-16%) precision as well as ion suppression or enhancement were determined. Based on these findings adipoR agonists can be implemented in sports drug testing procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Dib
- Center for Preventive Doping Research-Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933, Cologne, Germany
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Thomas A, Vogel M, Piper T, Krug O, Beuck S, Schänzer W, Thevis M. Quantification of AICAR-ribotide concentrations in red blood cells by means of LC-MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9703-9. [PMID: 23828211 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AICAR (5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxyamide ribonucleoside) arguably provides performance-enhancing properties even in the absence of physical exercise and, therefore, the substance is banned in elite sports since 2009. Due to the natural presence of AICAR in human blood and urine, uncovering the misuse by direct qualitative analysis is not possible. Entering the circulation, the riboside is immediately incorporated into red blood cells (RBCs) and transformed into the corresponding ribotide (5'-monophosphate) form. Within the present study, an analytical method was developed to determine AICAR-ribotide concentrations in RBC concentrates by means of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The method was validated enabling quantitative result interpretation considering the parameters specificity, precision (intra- and interday), linearity, recovery, accuracy (LOD/LOQ), stability and ion suppression. By analysing 99 RBC samples of young athletes, normal physiological levels of AICAR-ribotide were determined (10-500 ng/mL), and individual levels were found to be stable for several days. Employing in vitro incubation experiments with AICAR riboside in fresh whole blood samples, the ribotide concentrations were observed to increase significantly within 30 min from baseline to 1-10 μg/mL. These levels are considered conserved for the lifetime of the erythrocyte and, thus, the results of the in vitro model strongly support the hypothesis that measuring abnormally high AICAR-ribotide concentrations in RBC of elite athletes has the potential to uncover the misuse of this substance for a long period of time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Thomas
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Preventive Doping Research, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf, 50933, Cologne, Germany,
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