Functionally Gradient Macroporous Polymers: Emulsion Templating Offers Control over Density, Pore Morphology, and Composition

Gradient macroporous polymers were produced by polymerization of emulsion templates comprising a continuous monomer phase and an internal aqueous template phase. To produce macroporous polymers with gradient composition, pore size, and foam density, we varied the template formulation, droplet size, and internal phase ratio of emulsion templates continuously and stacked those prior to polymerization. Using the outlined approach, it is possible to vary one property along the resulting macroporous polymer while retaining the other properties. The elastic moduli and crush strengths change along the gradient of the macroporous polymers; their mechanical properties are dominated by those of the weakest layers in the gradient. Macroporous polymers with gradient chemical composition and thus stiffness provide both high impact load and energy adsorption, rendering the gradient foam suitable for impact protective applications. We show that dual-dispensing and simultaneous blending of two different emulsion formulations in various ratios results in a fine, bidirectional change of the template composition, enabling the production of true gradient macroporous polymers with a high degree of design freedom.

On the performance of Sargassum-derived calcium alginate ion exchange resins for Pb2+ adsorption: batch and packed bed applications

Driven by climate change and human activity, Sargassum blooming rates have intensified, producing copious amount of the invasive, pelagic seaweed across the Caribbean and Latin America. Battery recycling and lead-smelter wastes have heavily polluted the environment and resulted in acute lead poisoning in children through widespread heavy metal contamination particular in East Trinidad. Our study details a comprehensive investigation into the use of Sargassum (S. natans), as a potential resource-circular feedstock for the synthesis of calcium alginate beads utilized in heavy metal adsorption, both in batch and column experiments. Here, ionic cross-linking of extracted sodium alginate with calcium chloride was utilized to create functional ion-exchange beads. Given the low quality of alginates extracted from Sargassum which produce poor morphological beads, composite beads in conjunction with graphene oxide and acrylamide were used to improve fabrication. Stand-alone calcium alginate beads exhibited superior Pb2+ adsorption, with a capacity of 213 mg g-1 at 20 °C and pH 3.5, surpassing composite and commercial resins. Additives like acrylamide and graphene oxide in composite alginate resins led to a 21-40% decrease in Pb2+ adsorption due to reduced active sites. Column operations confirmed Alginate systems' practicality, with 20-24% longer operating times, 15 times lower adsorbent mass on scale-up and 206% smaller column diameters compared to commercial counterparts. Ultimately, this study advocates for Sargassum-based Alginate ion-exchange beads as a bio-based alternative in Trinidad and developing nations for dealing with heavy metal ion waste, offering superior heavy metal adsorption performance and supporting resource circularity.

Fungal Carbon: A Cost-Effective Tunable Network Template for Creating Supercapacitors

Carbons form critical components in biogas purification and energy storage systems and are used to modify polymer matrices. The environmental impact of producing carbons has driven research interest in biomass-derived carbons, although these have yield, processing, and resource competition limitations. Naturally formed fungal filaments are investigated, which are abundantly available as food- and biotechnology-industry by-products and wastes as cost-effective and sustainable templates for carbon networks. Pyrolyzed Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus eryngii filament networks are mesoporous and microscale with a size regime close to carbon fibers. Their BET surface areas of ≈282 m2 g-1 and ≈60 m2 g-1, respectively, greatly exceed values associated with carbon fibers and non-activated pyrolyzed bacterial cellulose and approximately on par with values for carbon black and CNTs in addition to pyrolyzed pinewood, rice husk, corn stover or olive mill waste. They also exhibit greater specific capacitance than both non-activated and activated pyrolyzed bacterial cellulose in addition to YP-50F (coconut shell based) commercial carbons. The high surface area and specific capacitance of fungal carbon coupled with the potential to tune these properties through species- and growth-environment-associated differences in network and filament morphology and inclusion of inorganic material through biomineralization makes them potentially useful in creating supercapacitors.

Transparent PDMS Surfaces with Covalently Attached Lubricants for Enhanced Anti-adhesion Performance

Liquid-like surfaces featuring slippery, omniphobic, covalently attached liquids (SOCALs) reduce unwanted adhesion by providing a molecularly smooth and slippery surface arising from the high mobility of the liquid chains. Such SOCALs are commonly prepared on hard substrates, such as glass, wafers, or metal oxides, despite the importance of nonpolar elastomeric substrates, such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) in anti-fouling or nonstick applications. Compared to polar elastomers, hydrophobic PDMS elastomer activation and covalent functionalization are significantly more challenging, as PDMS tends to display fast hydrophobic recovery upon activation as well as superficial cracking. Through the extraction of excess PDMS oligomers and fine-tuning of plasma activation parameters, homogeneously functionalized PDMS with fluorinated polysiloxane brushes could be obtained while at the same time reducing crack formation. Polymer brush mobility was increased through the addition of a smaller molecular silane linker to exhibit enhanced dewetting properties and reduced substrate swelling compared to functionalizations featuring hydrocarbon functionalities. Linear polymer brushes were verified by thermogravimetric analysis. The optical properties of PDMS remained unaffected by the activation in high-frequency plasma but were impacted by low-frequency plasma. Drastic decreases in solid adhesion of not just complex contaminants but even ice could be shown in horizontal push tests, demonstrating the potential of SOCAL-functionalized PDMS surfaces for improved nonstick applications.

Insights into the material properties of dragline spider silk affecting Schwann cell migration

Dragline silk of Trichonephila spiders has attracted attention in various applications. One of the most fascinating uses of dragline silk is in nerve regeneration as a luminal filling for nerve guidance conduits. In fact, conduits filled with spider silk can measure up to autologous nerve transplantation, but the reasons behind the success of silk fibers are not yet understood. In this study dragline fibers of Trichonephila edulis were sterilized with ethanol, UV radiation, and autoclaving and the resulting material properties were characterized with regard to the silk's suitability for nerve regeneration. Rat Schwann cells (rSCs) were seeded on these silks in vitro and their migration and proliferation were investigated as an indication for the fiber's ability to support the growth of nerves. It was found that rSCs migrate faster on ethanol treated fibers. To elucidate the reasons behind this behavior, the fiber's morphology, surface chemistry, secondary protein structure, crystallinity, and mechanical properties were studied. The results demonstrate that the synergy of dragline silk's stiffness and its composition has a crucial effect on the migration of rSCs. These findings pave the way towards understanding the response of SCs to silk fibers as well as the targeted production of synthetic alternatives for regenerative medicine applications.

Correct specific retention volume determination in inverse gas chromatography

Inverse Gas Chromatography (IGC) is an important technique for characterization of solids. Determining the specific retention volume of the injected probe molecule is the basis of the analysis for all the physico-chemical properties that the technique can determine, most importantly in Heat of Sorption, Glass Transition Temperature, Gibbs Adsorption Free Energy. Two equations have been used in the literature to calculate the specific retention volume; one normalizes the retention volume to 0 °C (standard temperature), which was previously proven to be thermodynamically incorrect, while the other calculates the retention volume at the measurement temperature. Here, we compare the heat of sorption for a series of alkanes on two substrates, micro crystalline cellulose and natural graphite, calculated using these two equations. This study shows that the specific retention volume is strongly dependent on the column temperature. Using the retention volume values normalised to 0 °C consistently overestimates the heats of sorption by up to 10%. Most importantly, correcting the retention volume to standard temperature will misrepresent the effect of temperature on the retention volume and the thermodynamic parameters derived from it.

Horse manure as resource for biogas and nanolignocellulosic fibres

Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) has key applications in composites, water filters and as emulsifiers. The affinity of NFC to water is a challenge, as it negatively influences its integrity. Lignin, a major component of plant biomass, is a natural hydrophobiser. Anaerobic digestion (AD) of biomass to produce biomethane allows to up-concentrate lignin in the fermentation residue containing lignocellulosic fibres. Horse manure was used as substrate for biogas production from which nanolignocellulose fibres (LCNF) were extracted. A biogas yield of 207 L_N kg_VS^-1 with a methane concentration of 65 % was achieved. From the fermentation residue LCNFs, in yields of up to 41 %, with lignin contents between 23 and 29 wt% depending on fermentation time were obtained. Nanopapers produced from LCNFs possessed tensile strengths and moduli of 45 to 91 MPa and 7 to 8 GPa, respectively. The increased lignin content was responsible for decreased water absorption capacity of nanopapers.

Foaming of oxidized nanocellulose for the preparation of high-flux water filters

Treatment of polluted water is an important task to secure access to clean water also for future generations. Filters are an efficient means to reject various pollutants on a wide range of size scales either by size-exclusion or electrostatic interaction, respectively. Commonly, filters and membranes from various synthetic materials are employed for these applications. Recently, filters based on renewable (nano) cellulose papers and coatings emerged as sustainable alternative to synthetic materials usually utilized. However, fabrication of such paper network structures from aqueous suspension by filtration processes is a time-consuming process caused by the high water holding capacity of highly hydrophilic and negatively charged nanocellulose fibrils. To optimize the preparation of nanocellulose coated filters, substitution of water by air and thus generating nanocellulose foams that are collapsed onto a substrate would be an appealing approach. Here we present the development of foams from negatively charged TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose by screening various surfactants and concentrations to generate a foam stable enough to be transferred onto a viscose substrate. Foams were collapsed by oven consolidation, positive pressure filtration, or hot-pressing, respectively. Consolidated filters were tested for their water permeance and rejection of heavy metal ions using copper ions as model system. Very high permeances competitive to commercial filters based on synthetic polymers were achieved. Furthermore, adsorption capacities for copper of up to 70 mg/g were found. This is close to adsorption capacities reported for negatively charged TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose in conventional batch-wise static adsorption. However, in the current process adsorption takes place during filtration of water through filters in a continuous process which constitutes a tremendous advantage.

Graphical Abstract

Environmental life cycle assessment of nano-cellulose and biogas production from manure

Due to its unique properties, nano fibrillated cellulose (NFC) has been a popular topic of research in recent years. Nevertheless, literature assessing environmental impacts of NFC production is scarce, especially for using other starting materials than wood pulp. Hence, in this study, a new approach of cascaded use of manure to produce biogas and subsequently use the cellulose containing digestate for NFC production (manure scenario) is compared to the production from Kraft pulp from hardwood chips (wood chips scenario) via life cycle assessment (LCA). To produce comparable outputs (NFC and biogas) in both scenarios a typical Austrian biogas plant with maize silage and pig slurry as input material is included in the wood chips scenario. A proxy approach is used to upscale the manure scenario from laboratory to an industrial scale (except for the pulp to NFC step) to ensure comparability of both scenarios. The impact categories global warming potential (GWP), fossil resource scarcity, freshwater eutrophication, human toxicity, terrestrial acidification (TAP) and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential are analysed referring to the functional unit of 1 kg NFC. Results show that the manure scenario has at least 45% lower impacts in all assessed categories. GWP is 4.41 kg CO₂ eq./kg NFC in the manure and 9.74 kg CO₂ eq./kg NFC in the wood chips scenario. The transformation step from pulp to NFC is identified as environmental hotspot due to the high electricity demand in both scenarios. Results are additionally assessed only for the industrial scale part (includes biogas and pulp production). In the latter the main difference can be found in the substrate production. While it plays a subordinate role in the manure scenario (up to 8%) as manure is seen as a waste stream with no upstream environmental impacts attached, the production of maize silage is one of the hotspots in the industrial part in the wood chips scenario. This difference is especially prominent in TAP, where the substrate production is responsible for 91% of the 0.06 kg SO₂ eq. impact, which is tenfold the impact of the manure scenario. This underlines the issue of using energy crops as substrate in biogas plants. It also highlights the importance of further research of using waste streams as inputs for the electricity production and subsequent use in the pulp and paper industry. This LCA demonstrates that NFC production from manure is a sustainable alternative to the production from hardwood Kraft pulp.

An approach for the scalable production of macroporous polymer beads

A tubular co-flow reactor to produce macroporous polymer beads by polymerization of medium and high internal phase emulsion (M/HIPE) templates was developed. This reactor allows for improved production rates compared to tubing based microfluidic devices. Water-in-oil (W/O) M/HIPEs, containing methyl methacrylate (MMA) and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) monomers in the continuous phase, were injected into a re-circulating carrier phase. The continuous phase of the emulsion droplets was UV polymerized in situ, resulting in polyM/HIPE beads. The emulsion composition was adjusted to produce poly(MMA-co-EGDMA) porous polymer beads with a protective crust and an interconnected internal pore structure. HCl loaded beads were produced by adding the active ingredient into the dispersed emulsion phase, leading to HCl encapsulation in the porous structure of the beads after polymerization. Even after exposure to ambient conditions for 24 h, 60% of the HCl remained in the beads, indicating good encapsulation efficiencies. Thus, it is possible to use such macroporous beads as delivery vehicles.

Investigations on sub-structures within cavities of surface imprinted polymers using AFM and PF-QNM

Investigations on lithographically formed cavities of surface-imprinted polymers (SIP) can help to gain deeper understanding on cell recognition with SIPs: it is known that surface topography and biomolecules transferred during surface imprinting contribute to cell adhesion. In this work, SIPs synthesized via two different imprinting techniques, namely stamp imprinting and polymerization of Pickering emulsions, were investigated and compared to each other, using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Peak Force Quantitative Nano Mechanics (PF-QNM). We focused on SIPs based on poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) as model polymer and E. coli as model template for cell imprinting. Both imprinting approaches led to cavities that revealed nanostructures within the imprints. Stamp imprinting cavities feature low surface roughness and channel structures that resemble the negative pattern of the bacteria on the stamp and their filaments, while SIPs synthesized via polymerization of Pickering emulsions reveal globular nanostructures accumulating in the imprints. AFM phase imaging and adhesion mapping using PF-QNM show that these globular structures are remainders of the imprinted E. coli cells, most likely lipopolysaccarides, which is not observable in imprints resulting from stamp imprinting.

Morphology and properties of foamed high crystallinity PEEK prepared by high temperature thermally induced phase separation

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is a high‐performance semi‐crystalline thermoplastic polymer with outstanding mechanical properties, high thermal stability, resistance to most common solvents, and good biocompatibility. A high temperature thermally induced phase separation technique was used to produce PEEK foams with controlled foam density from PEEK in 4‐phenylphenol (4PPH) solutions. Physical and mechanical properties, foam and bulk density, surface area, and pore morphology of foamed PEEK were characterized and the role of PEEK concentration and cooling rate was investigated. Porous PEEK with densities ranging from 110 to 360 kg/m³ with elastic moduli and crush strength ranging from 13 to 125 MPa and 0.8 to 7 MPa, respectively, was produced.

On the BET Surface Area of Nanocellulose Determined Using Volumetric, Gravimetric and Chromatographic Adsorption Methods

Volumetric N2 adsorption at −196°C is generally accepted as “gold standard” for estimating the Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) surface area of nanocellulose. It is unclear however, whether the BET surface area of nanocellulose obtained at such low temperatures and pressures is meaningful at an absolute sense, as nanocellulose is used at ambient temperature and pressure. In this work, a systematic evaluation of the BET surface area of nanocellulose using highly crystalline bacterial cellulose (BC) as model nanocellulose was undertaken to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the limitations of BET method for nanocellulose. BET surface area obtained using volumetric N2 adsorption at −196°C was compared with the BET surface area acquired from gravimetric experiments based on n-octane adsorption using dynamic vapour sorption (DVS) and n-octane adsorption determined by inverse gas chromatography (iGC), both at 25°C. It was found that the BET surface area calculated from volumetric N2 adsorption data was 25% lower than that of n-octane adsorption at 25°C obtained using DVS and iGC adsorption methods. These results supported the hypothesis that the BET surface area of nanocellulose is both a molecular scale (N2vs n-octane, molecular cross section of 0.162 nm2vs 0.646 nm2) and temperature (−196°C vs 25°C) dependent property. This study also demonstrates the importance of selecting appropriate BET pressure range based on established criteria and would suggest that room temperature measurement is more relevant for many nanocellulose applications.

Fungal chitin-glucan nanopapers with heavy metal adsorption properties for ultrafiltration of organic solvents and water

Membranes and filters are essential devices, both in the laboratory for separation of media, solvent recovery, organic solvent and water filtration purposes, and in industrial scale applications, such as the removal of industrial pollutants, e.g. heavy metal ions, from water. Due to their solvent stability, biologically sourced and renewable membrane or filter materials, such as cellulose or chitin, provide a low-cost, sustainable alternative to synthetic materials for organic solvent filtration and water treatment. Here, we investigated the potential of fungal chitin nanopapers derived from A. bisporus (common white-button mushrooms) as ultrafiltration membranes for organic solvents and aqueous solutions and hybrid chitin-cellulose microfibril papers as high permeance adsorptive filters. Fungal chitin constitutes a renewable, easily isolated, and abundant alternative to crustacean chitin. It can be fashioned into solvent stable nanopapers with pore sizes of 10-12 nm, as determined by molecular weight cut-off and rejection of gold nanoparticles, that exhibit high organic solvent permeance, making them a valuable material for organic solvent filtration applications. Addition of cellulose fibres to produce chitin-cellulose hybrid papers extended membrane functionality to water treatment applications, with considerable static and dynamic copper ion adsorption capacities and high permeances that outperformed other biologically derived membranes, while being simpler to produce, naturally porous, and not requiring crosslinking. The simple nanopaper production process coupled with the remarkable filtration properties of the papers for both organic solvent filtration and water treatment applications designates them an environmentally benign alternative to traditional membrane and filter materials.

Additive Manufactured Carbon Nanotube/Epoxy Nanocomposites for Heavy-Duty Applications

A solid epoxy resin formulation containing 2.5 wt % carbon nanotubes is 3D printed into self-standing parts, which after thermal curing result in CNTs/epoxy nanocomposites with mechanical properties attractive for heavy-duty applications.

Bacterial nanocellulose papers with high porosity for optimized permeance and rejection of nm-sized pollutants

Access to clean potable water is increasingly becoming a struggle for whole humankind, thus water treatment to remediate wastewater and fresh water sources is an important task. Pollutants in the nanoscale, such as viruses and macromolecules, are usually removed by means of membrane filtration processes, predominantly nanofiltration or ultrafiltration. Cellulose nanopapers, prepared from renewable resources and manufactured by papermaking, have recently been demonstrated to be versatile alternatives to polymer membranes in this domain. Unfortunately, so far nanopaper filters suffer from limited permeance and thus efficiency. We here present nanopapers made from bacterial cellulose dispersed in water or different types of low surface tension organic liquids (alcohol, ketone, ether) through a simple papermaking process. Nanopapers prepared from organic liquids (BC-org) exhibited 40 times higher permeance, caused by a lower paper density hence increased porosity, compared to conventional nanopapers produced from aqueous dispersions, ultimately enhancing the efficiency of bacterial cellulose nanopaper membranes. Despite their higher porosity, BC-org nanopapers still have pore sizes of 15-20 nm similar to BC nanopapers made from aqueous dispersions, thus enabling removal of contaminants the size of viruses by a size-exclusion mechanism at high permeance.

High-Performance Polymer Foams by Thermally Induced Phase Separation

Macroporous, low-density polyetheretherketone, polyetherketoneketone, and polyetherimide foams are produced using a high-temperature, thermally induced phase separation method. A high-boiling-point solvent, which is suitable to dissolve at least 20 wt% of these high-performance polymers at temperatures above 250 °C, is identified. The foam morphology is controlled by the cooling procedure. The resulting polymer foams have porosities close to 80% with surface areas up to 140 m² g^-1 and elastic moduli up to 97 MPa.

Crab vs. Mushroom: A Review of Crustacean and Fungal Chitin in Wound Treatment

Chitin and its derivative chitosan are popular constituents in wound-treatment technologies due to their nanoscale fibrous morphology and attractive biomedical properties that accelerate healing and reduce scarring. These abundant natural polymers found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls affect almost every phase of the healing process, acting as hemostatic and antibacterial agents that also support cell proliferation and attachment. However, key differences exist in the structure, properties, processing, and associated polymers of fungal and arthropod chitin, affecting their respective application to wound treatment. High purity crustacean-derived chitin and chitosan have been widely investigated for wound-treatment applications, with research incorporating chemically modified chitosan derivatives and advanced nanocomposite dressings utilizing biocompatible additives, such as natural polysaccharides, mineral clays, and metal nanoparticles used to achieve excellent mechanical and biomedical properties. Conversely, fungi-derived chitin is covalently decorated with -glucan and has received less research interest despite its mass production potential, simple extraction process, variations in chitin and associated polymer content, and the established healing properties of fungal exopolysaccharides. This review investigates the proven biomedical properties of both fungal- and crustacean-derived chitin and chitosan, their healing mechanisms, and their potential to advance modern wound-treatment methods through further research and practical application.

Nanomaterials Derived from Fungal Sources-Is It the New Hype?

Greener alternatives to synthetic polymers are constantly being investigated and sought after. Chitin is a natural polysaccharide that gives structural support to crustacean shells, insect exoskeletons, and fungal cell walls. Like cellulose, chitin resides in nanosized structural elements that can be isolated as nanofibers and nanocrystals by various top-down approaches, targeted at disintegrating the native construct. Chitin has, however, been largely overshadowed by cellulose when discussing the materials aspects of the nanosized components. This Perspective presents a thorough overview of chitin-related materials research with an analytical focus on nanocomposites and nanopapers. The red line running through the text emphasizes the use of fungal chitin that represents several advantages over the more popular crustacean sources, particularly in terms of nanofiber isolation from the native matrix. In addition, many β-glucans are preserved in chitin upon its isolation from the fungal matrix, enabling new horizons for various engineering solutions.

Waste-Derived Low-Cost Mycelium Nanopapers with Tunable Mechanical and Surface Properties

Mycelium, the vegetative growth of filamentous fungi, has attracted increasing commercial and academic interest in recent years because of its ability to upcycle agricultural and industrial wastes into low-cost, sustainable composite materials. However, mycelium composites typically exhibit foam-like mechanical properties, primarily originating from their weak organic filler constituents. Fungal growth can be alternatively utilized as a low-cost method for on-demand generation of natural nanofibrils, such as chitin and chitosan, which can be grown and isolated from liquid wastes and byproducts in the form of fungal microfilaments. This study characterized polymer extracts and nanopapers produced from a common mushroom reference and various species of fungal mycelium grown on sugarcane byproduct molasses. Polymer yields of ∼10-26% were achieved, which are comparable to those of crustacean-derived chitin, and the nanopapers produced exhibited much higher tensile strengths than the existing mycelium materials, with values of up to ∼25 MPa (mycelium) and ∼98 MPa (mushroom), in addition to useful hydrophobic surface properties resulting from the presence of organic lipid residues in the nanopapers. HCl or H₂O₂ treatments were used to remove these impurities facilitating tuning of mechanical, thermal, and surface properties of the nanopapers produced. This potentially enables their use in a wide range of applications including coatings, membranes, packaging, and paper.

Air Templated Macroporous Epoxy Foams with Silica Particles as Property-Defining Additive

Nonaqueous foams were successfully produced by mechanically beating air into liquid epoxy resin, surfactant, and silica particle mixtures and used as templates to produce macroporous polymers. The air bubbles introduced into the epoxy formulations served as templates for the pores of the cured epoxy foams. The addition of silica particles into the resin mixture resulted in an increased viscosity of the formulation, thus enhancing the stability of the liquid epoxy froths, which could then be thermally cured at 60 °C. Increasing the silica loading in the formulation resulted in an increase of the foam density and decrease of the average pore size of the epoxy foams. The epoxy foams containing silica exhibited a hierarchical pore structure, where large pores were surrounded by smaller pores, and enhanced stiffness as compared to the control epoxy foams with a monomodal pore size distribution.

Rapid Water Softening with TEMPO-Oxidized/Phosphorylated Nanopapers

Water hardness not only constitutes a significant hazard for the functionality of water infrastructure but is also associated with health concerns. Commonly, water hardness is tackled with synthetic ion-exchange resins or membranes that have the drawbacks of requiring the awkward disposal of saturated materials and being based on fossil resources. In this work, we present a renewable nanopaper for the purpose of water softening prepared from phosphorylated TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (PT-CNF). Nanopapers were prepared from CNF suspensions in water (PT-CNF nanopapers) or low surface tension organic liquids (ethanol), named EPT-CNF nanopapers, respectively. Nanopaper preparation from ethanol resulted in a significantly increased porosity of the nanopapers enabling much higher permeances: more than 10,000× higher as compared to nanopapers from aqueous suspensions. The adsorption capacity for Ca²⁺ of nanopapers from aqueous suspensions was 17 mg g^-1 and 5 mg g^-1 for Mg²⁺; however, EPT-CNF nanopapers adsorbed more than 90 mg g^-1 Ca²⁺ and almost 70 mg g^-1 Mg²⁺. The higher adsorption capacity was a result of the increased accessibility of functional groups in the bulk of the nanopapers caused by the higher porosity of nanopapers prepared from ethanol. The combination of very high permeance and adsorption capacity constitutes a high overall performance of these nanopapers in water softening applications.

Synthesis of epoxidized poly(ester carbonate)-b-polyimide-b-poly(ester carbonate): reactive single-walled carbon nanotube dispersants enable synergistic reinforcement around multi-walled nanotube-grafted carbon fibers

Novel triblock polymers for nanocomposite applications.

Effects of Contact Angle and Flocculation of Particles of Oligomer of Tetrafluoroethylene on Oil Foaming

Oil foams have been stabilized by using particles of oligomer of tetrafluoroethylene (OTFE). OTFE particles were dispersed in oil mixtures prior to aeration, to exclude the oil-repellency nature of the particles due to the formation of the metastable Cassie-Baxter state and properly evaluate the effects of contact angle on the foaming behavior. The particle contact angle (θ^Y) against air/oil surfaces were controlled by changing a composition of two oils with different surface tension (n-heptane and methyl salicylate). The θ^Y value increases with increasing a mole fraction of methyl salicylate, from 42° (for pure n-heptane) to 89° (for pure methyl salicylate). The air volume incorporated in the oils after aerating OTFE dispersions in the oil mixtures shows a maximum when θ^Y = 55°. The flocculation of OTFE particles in bulk oils is responsible for the unexpected behavior of foaming observed when θ^Y is relatively high. The increase in the degree of the flocculation reduces the effective concentration of OTFE particles in bulk oil, leading to the inefficient bubble stabilization. These findings suggest the efficient oil foaming using particles as a stabilizer is achieved by optimizing both the particle contact angle and the degree of flocculation in oils.

"Brick-and-Mortar" Nanostructured Interphase for Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

The fiber-matrix interface plays a critical role in determining composite mechanical properties. While a strong interface tends to provide high strength, a weak interface enables extensive debonding, leading to a high degree of energy absorption. Balancing these conflicting requirements by engineering composite interfaces to improve strength and toughness simultaneously still remains a great challenge. Here, a nanostructured fiber coating was realized to manifest the critical characteristics of natural nacre, at a reduced length scale, consistent with the surface curvature of fibers. The new interphase contains a high proportion (∼90 wt %) of well-aligned inorganic platelets embedded in a polymer; the window of suitable platelet dimensions is very narrow, with an optimized platelet width and thickness of about 130 and 13 nm, respectively. An anisotropic, nanostructured coating was uniformly and conformally deposited onto a large number of 9 μm diameter glass fibers, simultaneously, using self-limiting layer-by-layer assembly (LbL); this parallel approach demonstrates a promising strategy to exploit LbL methods at scale. The resulting nanocomposite interphase, primarily loaded in shear, provides new mechanisms for stress dissipation and plastic deformation. The energy released by fiber breakage in tension appear to spread and dissipate within the nanostructured interphase, accompanied by stable fiber slippage, while the interfacial strength was improved up to 30%.

Better together: synergy in nanocellulose blends

Cellulose nanopapers have gained significant attention in recent years as large-scale reinforcement for high-loading cellulose nanocomposites, substrates for printed electronics and filter nanopapers for water treatment. The mechanical properties of nanopapers are of fundamental importance for all these applications. Cellulose nanopapers can simply be prepared by filtering a suspension of nanocellulose, followed by heat consolidation. It was already demonstrated that the mechanical properties of cellulose nanopapers can be tailored by the fineness of the fibrils used or by modifying nanocellulose fibrils for instance by polymer adsorption, but nanocellulose blends remain underexplored. In this work, we show that the mechanical and physical properties of cellulose nanopapers can be tuned by creating nanopapers from blends of various grades of nanocellulose, i.e. (mechanically refined) bacterial cellulose or cellulose nanofibrils extracted from never-dried bleached softwood pulp by chemical and mechanical pre-treatments. We found that nanopapers made from blends of two or three nanocellulose grades show synergistic effects resulting in improved stiffness, strength, ductility, toughness and physical properties.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'New horizons for cellulose nanotechnology'.

Recombinant biosynthesis of bacterial cellulose in genetically modified Escherichia coli

Bacterial cellulose (BC) exhibits unique properties such as high purity compared to plant-based cellulose; however, commercial production of BC has remained a challenge, primarily due to the strain properties of cellulose-producing bacteria. Herein, we developed a functional and stable BC production system in genetically modified (GM) Escherichia coli by recombinant expression of both the BC synthase operon (bcsABCD) and the upstream operon (cmcax, ccpAx). BC production was achieved in GM HMS174 (DE3) and in GM C41 (DE3) by optimization of the culture temperature (22 °C, 30 °C, and 37 °C) and IPTG concentration. BC biosynthesis was detected much earlier in GM C41 (DE3) cultures (3 h after IPTG induction) than those of Gluconacetobacter hansenii. GM HMS174 (DE3) produced dense fibres having a length of approximately 1000–3000 μm and a diameter of 10–20 μm, which were remarkably larger than the fibres of BC typically produced by G. hansenii.

Applying a potential difference to minimise damage to carbon fibres during carbon nanotube grafting by chemical vapour deposition

The application of an in situ potential difference between carbon fibres and a graphite foil counter electrode (300 V, generating an electric field ca 0.3-0.7 V μm^-1), during the chemical vapour deposition synthesis of carbon nanotube (CNT) grafted carbon fibres, significantly improves the uniformity of growth without reducing the tensile properties of the underlying carbon fibres. Grafted CNTs with diameters 55 nm ± 36 nm and lengths around 10 μm were well attached to the carbon fibre surface, and were grown without the requirement for protective barrier coatings. The grafted CNTs increased the surface area to 185 m² g^-1 compared to the as-received sized carbon fibre 0.24 m² g^-1. The approach is not restricted to batch systems and has the potential to improve CNT grafted carbon fibre production for continuous processing.

Noncovalent Surface Modification of Cellulose Nanopapers by Adsorption of Polymers from Aprotic Solvents

Basic adsorption of hydrophobic polymers from aprotic solvents was introduced as a platform technology to modify exclusively the surfaces of cellulose nanopapers. Dynamic vapor sorption demonstrated that the water vapor uptake ability of the nanopapers remained unperturbed, despite strong repellency to liquid water caused by the adsorbed hydrophobic polymer on the surface. This was enabled by the fact that the aprotic solvents used for adsorption did not swell the nanopaper unlike water that is generally applied as the adsorption medium in such systems. As case examples, the adsorptions of polystyrene (PS) and poly(trifluoroethylene) (PF₃E) were followed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and water contact angle measurements, backed up with morphological analysis by atomic force microscopy. The resulting nanopapers are useful in applications like moisture buffers where repellence to liquid water and ability for moisture sorption are desired qualities.

Efficient continuous removal of nitrates from water with cationic cellulose nanopaper membranes

Nitrates constitute a severe problem for the quality of potable water. The removal of nitrates from water can be performed utilizing continuouslyoperating cellulose nanopaper ion-exchangers, which so far are unfortunately of only moderate efficiency. Here we demonstrate cationic cellulosenanopapers comprising cellulose nanofibrils carrying a high amount of ammonium groups (1.6 g mmol−1, i.e. 0.62 mmol g−1), which areanticipated to enable efficient removal of nitrate ions from aqueous solutions. Thin nanopapers were shown to have high adsorption capacities.Therefore we prepared low grammage nanopapers using a papermaking process from cellulose nanofibrils prepared from paper mill sludge. Theperformance of these cationic nanopapers was characterized by their permeance, with these new cationic nanopapers having a permeance of morethan 100 L m−2 h−1 MPa−1, which is far greater than the permeance of conventional nanopapers. Furthermore, nitrate ions were successfullyremoved from water by capturing them through adsorption onto the cationic nanopaper by primarily an ion-exchange mechanism. These cationicnanopapers possessed adsorption capacities of almost 300 mg g−1, which is superior to commonly used nanopaper ion-exchangers and batch-wiseapplied adsorbents. Utilization of an industrial side-stream in combination with very good membrane performance demonstrates the use ofresource efficient technologies in an important sector.

Cellulose nanocrystals by acid vapour: towards more effortless isolation of cellulose nanocrystals

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are topical in materials science but their full potential is yet to be fulfilled because of bottlenecks in the production: the process consumes huge amounts of water, recycling the strong acid catalyst is difficult, and purification steps are cumbersome, particularly with lengthy dialysis. Production of CNCs with HCl vapour overcomes many of these difficulties but the dispersion of CNCs from the already hydrolysed fibre matrix is a formidable challenge. This study is a fundamental effort to explore very basic means to facilitate CNC dispersion from cotton linter fibres (filter paper), hydrolysed to levelling off degree of polymerization by HCl vapour. The introduction of carboxylic groups on the cellulose crystal surface proved the most efficient method to alleviate dispersion with good yields (ca. 50%) and a provisional possibility to tune the CNC length. By contrast, attempts to directly disperse untreated hydrolysed fibres in various organic solvents and aqueous surfactant solutions were unsuccessful. The results showed that hydrolysis of native cellulose fibres by HCl vapour is indeed a viable method for producing CNCs but it has more potential as a pre-treatment step rather than a full-fledged process on its own.

Strong and Stiff: High-Performance Cellulose Nanocrystal/Poly(vinyl alcohol) Composite Fibers

The mechanical properties of rodlike cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) suggest great potential as bioderived reinforcement in (nano)composites. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) is a useful industrial material and very compatible with CNC chemistry. High performance CNC/PVOH composite fibers were produced coaxial coagulation spinning, followed by hot-drawing. We showed that CNCs increase the alignment and crystallinity of PVOH, as well as providing direct reinforcement, leading to enhanced fiber strength and stiffness. At 40 wt % CNC loading, the strength and stiffness reached 880 MPa and 29.9 GPa, exceeding the properties of most other nanocellulose based composite fibers previously reported.

High-Surface-Area, Emulsion-Templated Carbon Foams by Activation of polyHIPEs Derived from Pickering Emulsions

Carbon foams displaying hierarchical porosity and excellent surface areas of >1400 m²/g can be produced by the activation of macroporous poly(divinylbenzene). Poly(divinylbenzene) was synthesized from the polymerization of the continuous, but minority, phase of a simple high internal phase Pickering emulsion. By the addition of KOH, chemical activation of the materials is induced during carbonization, producing Pickering-emulsion-templated carbon foams, or carboHIPEs, with tailorable macropore diameters and surface areas almost triple that of those previously reported. The retention of the customizable, macroporous open-cell structure of the poly(divinylbenzene) precursor and the production of a large degree of microporosity during activation leads to tailorable carboHIPEs with excellent surface areas.