The origins of colour vision in vertebrates

The capacity for colour vision is mediated by the comparison of the signal intensities from photoreceptors of two or more types that differ in spectral sensitivity. Morphological, physiological and molecular analyses of the retina in an agnathan (jawless) fish, the lamprey Geotria australis, may hold important clues to the origins of colour vision in vertebrates. Lampreys are extant representatives of an ancient group of vertebrates, the origins of which are thought to date back to at least the early Cambrian, approximately 540 million years ago. G. australis possesses five photoreceptor types, each with cone-like ultrastructural features and different spectral sensitivities. Recent molecular genetic studies have also revealed that five visual pigment (opsin) genes are expressed in the retina, each of which is orthologous to the major classes of vertebrate opsin genes. These findings reveal that multiple opsin genes originated very early in vertebrate evolution, prior to the separation of the jawed and jawless vertebrate lineages, thereby providing the genetic basis for colour vision in all vertebrates.

CFTR mRNA expression is regulated by an upstream open reading frame and RNA secondary structure in its 5' untranslated region

Post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression through 5' untranslated region (5'UTR)-encoded cis-acting elements is an important mechanism for the control of protein expression levels. Through controlling specific aspects of translation initiation, expression can be tightly regulated while remaining responsive to cellular requirements. With respect to cystic fibrosis (CF), the overexpression of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein trafficking mutants, such as delta-F508, is of great biological and clinical interest. By understanding the post-transcriptional mechanisms that regulate CFTR expression, new procedures can be developed to enhance CFTR expression in homozygous delta-F508 CF patients. We have identified the key elements of a complex negative regulatory mechanism that is encoded within the human CFTR 5'UTR and show how these elements act in combination to restrict CFTR gene expression to a consistently low level in a transcript-specific manner. This study shows, for the first time, that endogenous human CFTR expression is post-transcriptionally regulated through a 5'UTR-mediated mechanism. We show that the very low levels of endogenous CFTR expression, compared with other low expression genes, are maintained through the co-operative inhibitory effects of an upstream open reading frame and a thermodynamically stable RNA secondary structure.

Disrupted post-transcriptional regulation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) by a 5'UTR mutation is associated with a CFTR-related disease

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is characterized as a single-gene disorder with a simple, autosomal recessive mode of inheritance. However, translation of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) genotype into CF phenotype is influenced by nucleotide sequence variations at multiple genetic loci, and individuals heterozygous for CFTR mutations are predisposed to a range of CFTR-related conditions, such as disseminated bronchiectasis. CF disease severity and CFTR-related conditions are more akin to complex, multifactorial traits, which are increasingly being associated with mutations that perturb gene expression. We have identified a patient with disseminated bronchiectasis, who is heterozygous for a single-nucleotide substitution in the CFTR 5' untranslated region (UTR) (c.-34C>T). The c.-34C>T mutation creates an upstream AUG codon and upstream open reading frame that overlaps, and is out of frame with, the CFTR protein coding sequence. Using luciferase reporter constructs, we have shown that the c.-34C>T mutation decreases gene expression by 85-99%, by reducing translation efficiency and mRNA stability. This is the first CFTR regulatory mutation shown to act at a posttranscriptional level that reduces the synthesis of normal CFTR (Class V), and reaffirms the importance of regulatory mutations as a genetic basis of multifactorial phenotypes.

The influence of ontogeny and light environment on the expression of visual pigment opsins in the retina of the black bream, Acanthopagrus butcheri

The correlation between ontogenetic changes in the spectral absorption characteristics of retinal photoreceptors and expression of visual pigment opsins was investigated in the black bream, Acanthopagrus butcheri. To establish whether the spectral qualities of environmental light affected the complement of visual pigments during ontogeny, comparisons were made between fishes reared in: (1) broad spectrum aquarium conditions; (2) short wavelength-reduced conditions similar to the natural environment; or (3) the natural environment (wild-caught). Microspectrophotometry was used to determine the wavelengths of spectral sensitivity of the photoreceptors at four developmental stages: larval, post-settlement, juvenile and adult. The molecular sequences of the rod (Rh1) and six cone (SWS1, SWS2A and B, Rh2Aalpha and beta, and LWS) opsins were obtained and their expression levels in larval and adult stages examined using quantitative RT-PCR. The changes in spectral sensitivity of the cones were related to the differing levels of opsin expression during ontogeny. During the larval stage the predominantly expressed opsin classes were SWS1, SWS2B and Rh2Aalpha, contrasting with SWS2A, Rh2Abeta and LWS in the adult. An increased proportion of long wavelength-sensitive double cones was found in fishes reared in the short wavelength-reduced conditions and in wild-caught animals, indicating that the expression of cone opsin genes is also regulated by environmental light.

Visual pigments in a living fossil, the Australian lungfish Neoceratodus forsteri

Background

One of the greatest challenges facing the early land vertebrates was the need to effectively interpret a terrestrial environment. Interpretation was based on ocular adaptations evolved for an aquatic environment millions of years earlier. The Australian lungfish Neoceratodus forsteri is thought to be the closest living relative to the first terrestrial vertebrate, and yet nothing is known about the visual pigments present in lungfish or the early tetrapods.

Results

Here we identify and characterise five visual pigments (rh1, rh2, lws, sws1 and sws2) expressed in the retina of N. forsteri. Phylogenetic analysis of the molecular evolution of lungfish and other vertebrate visual pigment genes indicates a closer relationship between lungfish and amphibian pigments than to pigments in teleost fishes. However, the relationship between lungfish, the coelacanth and tetrapods could not be absolutely determined from opsin phylogeny, supporting an unresolved trichotomy between the three groups.

Conclusion

The presence of four cone pigments in Australian lungfish suggests that the earliest tetrapods would have had a colorful view of their terrestrial environment.

The optics of the growing lungfish eye: Lens shape, focal ratio and pupillary movements inNeoceratodus forsteri(Krefft, 1870)

Lungfish (order Dipnoi) evolved during the Devonian period and are believed to be the closest living relatives to the land vertebrates. Here we describe the previously unknown morphology of the lungfish eye in order to examine ocular adaptations present in early sarcopterygian fish. Unlike many teleosts, the Australian lungfishNeoceratodus forsteripossesses a mobile pupil with a slow pupillary response similar to amphibians. The structure of the eye changes from juvenile to adult, with both eye and lens becoming more elliptical in shape with growth. This change in structure results in a decrease in focal ratio (the distance from lens center to the retina divided by the lens radius) and increased retinal illumination in adult fish. Despite a degree of lenticular correction for spherical aberration, there is considerable variation across the lens. A re-calculation of spatial resolving power using measured focal ratios from cryosectioning reveals a low ability to discriminate fine detail. The dipnoan eye shares more features with amphibian eyes than with most teleost eyes, which may echo the visual needs of this living fossil.

Functional characterization, tuning, and regulation of visual pigment gene expression in an anadromous lamprey

Lampreys are one of the two surviving groups of jawless vertebrates, whose ancestors arose more than 540 million years ago. Some species, such as Geotria australis, are anadromous, commencing life as ammocoetes in rivers, migrating downstream to the sea, and migrating back into rivers to spawn. Five photoreceptor types and five retinal cone opsin genes (LWS, SWS1, SWS2, RhA, and RhB) have previously been identified in G. australis. This implies that the ancestral vertebrates possessed photopic or cone-based vision with the potential for pentachromacy. Changes in the morphology of photoreceptors and their spectral sensitivity are encountered during differing aquatic phases of the lamprey lifecycle. To understand the molecular basis for these changes, we characterized the visual pigments and measured the relative levels of opsin expression over two lifecycle phases that are accompanied by contrasting ambient light environments. By expressing recombinant opsins in vitro, we show that SWS1, SWS2, RhA, and RhB visual pigments possess lambda(max) values of 359, 439, 497, and 492 nm respectively. For the LWS visual pigment, we predict a lambda(max) value of 560 nm based on key spectral tuning sites in other vertebrate LWS opsins. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction reveals that the retinal opsin genes of G. australis are differentially regulated such that the visual system switches from a broad sensitivity across a wide spectral range to a much narrower sensitivity centered around 490-500 nm on transition from marine to riverine conditions. These quantitative changes in visual pigment expression throughout the lifecycle may directly result from changes in the lighting conditions of the surrounding milieu.

Opsins: evolution in waiting

Complete vertebrate genome sequencing has revealed a remarkable stability and uniformity in the protein-coding gene set, which at first glance might suggest that gene duplication events are relatively rare. This may be a red herring, or at least a red cichlid, as the Lake Malawi cichlid fishes show rapid and extensive duplication and diversification of their retinal cone photoreceptor opsin genes.

The number, morphology, and distribution of retinal ganglion cells and optic axons in the Australian lungfishNeoceratodus forsteri(Krefft 1870)

Australian lungfishNeoceratodus forsterimay be the closest living relative to the first tetrapods and yet little is known about their retinal ganglion cells. This study reveals that lungfish possess a heterogeneous population of ganglion cells distributed in a horizontal streak across the retinal meridian, which is formed early in development and maintained through to adult stages. The number and complement of both ganglion cells and a population of putative amacrine cells within the ganglion cell layer are examined using retrograde labelling from the optic nerve and transmission electron-microscopic analysis of axons within the optic nerve. At least four types of retinal ganglion cells are present and lie predominantly within a thin ganglion cell layer, although two subpopulations are identified, one within the inner plexiform and the other within the inner nuclear layer. A subpopulation of retinal ganglion cells comprising up to 7% of the total population are significantly larger (>400 μm2) and are characterized as giant or alpha-like cells. Up to 44% of cells within the retinal ganglion cell layer represent a population of presumed amacrine cells. The optic nerve is heavily fasciculated and the proportion of myelinated axons increases with body length from 17% in subadults to 74% in adults. Spatial resolving power, based on ganglion cell spacing, is low (1.6–1.9 cycles deg−1,n= 2) and does not significantly increase with growth. This represents the first detailed study of retinal ganglion cells in sarcopterygian fish, and reveals that, despite variation amongst animal groups, trends in ganglion cell density distribution and characteristics of cell types were defined early in vertebrate evolution.

Morphology, characterization, and distribution of retinal photoreceptors in the Australian lungfish Neoceratodus forsteri (Krefft, 1870)

The Australian lungfish Neoceratodus forsteri (Dipnoi) is an ancient fish that has a unique phylogenetic relationship among the basal Sarcopterygii. Here we examine the ultrastructure, histochemistry, and distribution of the retinal photoreceptors using a combination of light and electron microscopy in order to determine the characteristics of the photoreceptor layer in this living fossil. Similar proportions of rods (53%) and cones (47%) reveal that N. forsteri optimizes both scotopic and photopic sensitivity according to its visual demands. Scotopic sensitivity is optimized by a tapetum lucidum and extremely large rods (18.62 +/- 2.68 microm ellipsoid diameter). Photopic sensitivity is optimized with a theoretical spatial resolving power of 3.28 +/- 0.66 cycles degree(-1), which is based on the spacing of at least three different cone types: a red cone containing a red oil droplet, a yellow cone containing a yellow ellipsoidal pigment, and a colorless cone containing multiple clear oil droplets. Topographic analysis reveals a heterogeneous distribution of all photoreceptor types, with peak cone densities predominantly found in temporal retina (6,020 rods mm(-2), 4,670 red cones mm(-2), 900 yellow cones mm(-2), and 320 colorless cones mm(-2)), but ontogenetic changes in distribution are revealed. Spatial resolving power and the diameter of all photoreceptor types (except yellow cones) increases linearly with growth. The presence of at least three morphological types of cones provides the potential for color vision, which could play a role in the clearer waters of its freshwater environment.

Non-PCR methods for the analysis of CFTR transcripts

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (CFTR) shows a complex mechanism of tissue-specific and temporal regulation. CFTR mRNA detection and measurement are extremely difficult because of the low to very low levels of its endogenous expression. In this paper, we describe four different non-PCR methods optimized to analyze CFTR transcripts in epithelial cell lines, primary cell lines and native tissues that express significant amounts of CFTR transcript.

Post-transcriptional regulation of the cystic fibrosis gene in cardiac development and hypertrophy

Eukaryotic gene expression, reflected in the amount of steady-state mRNA, is regulated at the post-transcriptional level. The 5'-untranslated regions (5'-UTRs) of some transcripts contain cis-acting elements, including upstream open reading frames (uORFs), that have been identified as being fundamental in modulating translation efficiency and mRNA stability. Previously, we demonstrated that uORFs present in the 5'-UTR of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regular (CFTR) transcripts expressed in the heart were able to modulate translation efficiency of the main CFTR ORF. Here, we show that the same 5'-UTR elements are associated with the differential stability of the 5'-UTR compared to the main coding region of CFTR transcripts. Furthermore, these post-transcriptional mechanisms are important factors governing regulated CFTR expression in the heart, in response to developmental and pathophysiological stimuli.

Cardiac Expression of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Involves Novel Exon 1 Usage to Produce a Unique Amino-terminal Protein

Cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene, which encodes a chloride channel present in many cells. In cardiomyocytes, we report that multiple exon 1 usage and alternative splicing produces four CFTR transcripts, with different 5'-untranslated regions, CFTR(TRAD-139), CFTR(-1C/-1A), CFTR(-1C), and CFTR(-1B). CFTR transcripts containing the novel upstream exons (exons -1C, -1B, and -1A) represent more than 90% of cardiac expressed CFTR mRNA. Regulation of cardiac CFTR expression, in response to developmental and pathological stimuli, is exclusively due to the modulation of CFTR(-1C) and CFTR(-1C/-1A) expression. Upstream open reading frames have been identified in the 5'-untranslated regions of all CFTR transcripts that, in conjunction with adjacent stem-loop structures, modulate the efficiency of translation initiation at the AUG codon of the main CFTR coding region in CFTR(TRAD-139) and CFTR(-1C/-1A) transcripts. Exon -1A, only present in CFTR(-1C/-1A) transcripts, encodes an AUG codon that is in-frame with the main CFTR open reading frame, the efficient translation of which produces a novel CFTR protein isoform with a curtailed amino terminus. As the expression of this CFTR transcript parallels the spatial and temporal distribution of the cAMP-activated whole-cell current density in normal and diseased hearts, we suggest that CFTR(-1C/-1A) provides the molecular basis for the cardiac cAMP-activated chloride channel. Our findings provide further insight into the complex nature of in vivo CFTR expression, to which multiple mRNA transcripts, protein isoforms, and post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms are now added.

In vivo gene expression: DNA electrotransfer

The use of electric pulses to deliver therapeutic molecules to tissues and organs in vivo is a rapidly growing field of research. Electrotransfer can be used to deliver a wide range of potentially therapeutic agents, including drugs, proteins, oligonucleotides, RNA and DNA. Optimization of this approach depends upon a number of parameters such as target organ accessibility, cell turnover, microelectrode design, electric pulsing protocols and the physiological response to the therapeutic agent. Many organs have been successfully transfected by electroporation, including skin, liver, skeletal and cardiac muscle, male and female germ cells, artery, gut, kidney, retinal ganglion cells, cornea, spinal cord, joint synovium and brain. Electrotransfer technology is relevant in a variety of research and clinical settings including cancer therapy, modulation of pathogenic immune reactions, delivery of therapeutic proteins and drugs, and the identification of drug targets by the modulation of normal gene expression. This, together with the capacity to deliver very large DNA constructs, greatly expands the research and clinical applications of in vivo DNA electrotransfer.

In vivo DNA electrotransfer

The use of electrotransfer for DNA delivery to prokaryotic cells, and eukaryotic cells in vitro, has been well known and widely used for many years. However, it is only recently that electric fields have been used to enhance DNA transfer to animal cells in vivo, and this is known as DNA electrotransfer or in vivo DNA electroporation. Some of the advantages of this method of somatic cell gene transfer are that it is a simple method that can be used to transfer almost any DNA construct to animal cells and tissues in vivo; multiple constructs can be co-transfected; it is equally applicable to dividing and nondividing cells; the DNA of interest does not need to be subcloned into a specific viral transfer vector and there is no need for the production of high titre viral stocks; and, as no viral genes are expressed there is less chance of an adverse immunologic reaction to vector sequences. The ease with which efficient in vivo gene transfer can be achieved with in vivo DNA electrotransfer is now allowing genetic analysis to be applied to a number of classic animal model systems where transgenic and embryonic stem cell techniques are not well developed, but for which a wealth of detailed descriptive embryological information is available, or surgical manipulation is much more feasible. As well as exciting applications in developmental biology, in vivo DNA electrotransfer is also being used to transfer genes to skeletal muscle and drive expression of therapeutically active proteins, and to examine exogenous gene and protein function in normal adult cells situated within the complex environment of a tissue and organ system in vivo. Thus, in effect providing the in vivo equivalent of the in vitro transient transfection assay. As the widespread use of in vivo electroporation has really only just begun, it is likely that the future will hold many more applications for this technology in basic research, biotechnology and clinical research areas.

Slowed conduction and ventricular tachycardia after targeted disruption of the cardiac sodium channel gene Scn5a

Voltage-gated sodium channels drive the initial depolarization phase of the cardiac action potential and therefore critically determine conduction of excitation through the heart. In patients, deletions or loss-of-function mutations of the cardiac sodium channel gene, SCN5A, have been associated with a wide range of arrhythmias including bradycardia (heart rate slowing), atrioventricular conduction delay, and ventricular fibrillation. The pathophysiological basis of these clinical conditions is unresolved. Here we show that disruption of the mouse cardiac sodium channel gene, Scn5a, causes intrauterine lethality in homozygotes with severe defects in ventricular morphogenesis whereas heterozygotes show normal survival. Whole-cell patch clamp analyses of isolated ventricular myocytes from adult Scn5a(+/-) mice demonstrate a approximately 50% reduction in sodium conductance. Scn5a(+/-) hearts have several defects including impaired atrioventricular conduction, delayed intramyocardial conduction, increased ventricular refractoriness, and ventricular tachycardia with characteristics of reentrant excitation. These findings reconcile reduced activity of the cardiac sodium channel leading to slowed conduction with several apparently diverse clinical phenotypes, providing a model for the detailed analysis of the pathophysiology of arrhythmias.