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Abstract
We surveyed 111 genetic counselors providing cancer risk counseling (CRC) in order to document their billing and record-keeping practices. Of the 75 respondents, billing was generally done under the supervising physician with a wide variation in charges. Follow-up telephone interviews with 28 counselors who charge patients revealed that billing was usually done using the CPT codes for consultations, and the ICD-9 diagnostic codes for cancer (if applicable), a medical complaint, or a family history of cancer code. Most counselors exclude some clinical information from the patient's medical record. In consultation notes, 81% of counselors document a discussion of genetic testing, but only 37% document the patient's actual testing decision, and only 19% document test results. In anticipation of increased referrals for CRC, data are needed on the components of a CRC visit, the amount of time required to provide CRC, patient outcomes measures, and charges and reimbursement. The feasibility and advisability of keeping results separate from the patient's medical record also needs to be addressed.
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Graves KD, Peshkin BN, Luta G, Tuong W, Schwartz MD. Interest in genetic testing for modest changes in breast cancer risk: implications for SNP testing. Public Health Genomics 2011; 14:178-89. [PMID: 21464556 DOI: 10.1159/000324703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Advances in genomics may eventually lead to 'personalized genetic medicine,' yet the clinical utility of predictive testing for modest changes in risk is unclear. We explored interest in genetic testing for genes related to modest changes in breast cancer risk in women at moderate to high risk for breast cancer. METHODS Women (n = 105) with a negative breast biopsy and ≥1 relative with breast or ovarian cancer completed telephone surveys. We measured demographic and psychosocial variables and, following presentation of hypothetical scenarios of genetic tests for lower-penetrance breast cancer gene mutations, assessed interest in willingness to pay for and comprehension of test results. We used logistic regression models with generalized estimating equations to evaluate combinations of risk level, cost and behavioral modifiers. RESULTS Many women (77%) reported 'definite' interest in genetic testing, with greater interest in tests that conveyed more risk and cost less. Behavioral modifiers of risk (taking a vitamin; diet/exercise), having a regular physician, greater perceived benefits of genetic testing, and greater cancer worry also influenced interest. Most participants (63%) did not understand relative vs. absolute risk. Women with less understanding reported more cancer worry and greater willingness to pay for testing. CONCLUSION Interest in genetic testing for mutations related to modest changes in risk was high, modified by both test and psychosocial factors. Findings highlight the need for education about benefits and risks of testing for mutations that convey modest changes in risk, particularly given the current lack of clinical validity/utility and availability of direct-to-consumer genetic testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- K D Graves
- Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA. kdg9 @ georgetown.edu
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Tercyak KP, Peshkin BN, Streisand R, Lerman C. Psychological issues among children of hereditary breast cancer gene (BRCA1/2) testing participants. Psychooncology 2001; 10:336-46. [PMID: 11462232 DOI: 10.1002/pon.531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Children growing up in hereditary breast cancer families may experience diminished psychological well-being. In addition to coping with having a cancer-affected parent or close relatives, these children may focus on their own health risks in light of shared genetic information. While knowledge of a parent's BRCA1/2 negative status may allay a subset of children's worries and fears about cancer, others could experience distressing thought patterns over positive test results. The purpose of this preliminary study is to explore conceptions of health, cancer risk, and psychological adjustment among children in families suggestive of carrying BRCA1/2 susceptibility genes. As part of a longitudinal investigation of the outcomes of BRCA1/2 testing in adults, 20 children of a highly select group of 15 mothers (80% previously affected by breast/ovarian cancer) completed a self-report survey of their beliefs and opinions regarding cancer and genetic testing, stress and worry about cancer, and anxiety, depression, and behavior problems. All information was completed at baseline, prior to the mother's receipt of her genetic test result. The data did not suggest unusually elevated cancer worries or psychological adjustment problems in these children at this point in the parental genetic testing process. However, children with more psychological distress symptoms did experience more frequent thoughts of becoming sick and greater cancer worries. To the extent that learning about a parent's positive test result could exacerbate these tendencies, recommendations to promote child psychological and family communications research that monitor such responses are offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Tercyak
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington DC 20007, USA.
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Lawrence WF, Peshkin BN, Liang W, Isaacs C, Lerman C, Mandelblatt JS. Cost of genetic counseling and testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 breast cancer susceptibility mutations. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001; 10:475-81. [PMID: 11352857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Counseling and predictive testing are now available for the recently isolated BRCA1 and BRCA2 breast cancer susceptibility genes. We examined the societal costs of providing this counseling and testing to women at risk of having a breast cancer susceptibility mutation. Genetic counselors in a research program prospectively monitored the time necessary to provide counseling and results disclosure. A time-motion study was used to determine time spent on phone calls, preparation, and documentation for counseling. Study participants were surveyed to determine travel time and need for dependent care during counseling. The test cost was calculated using the charge for full BRCA1/2 gene sequencing (Myriad Genetics, Inc.) multiplied by a Medicare-based cost-to-charge ratio. Counselors spent an average of 4.2 h providing genetic counseling for women at risk of having a susceptibility mutation. Genetic counseling without testing cost on average $213, whereas counseling, testing, and disclosure of results totaled $2057. A brief physician-based counseling instead of genetic counselor-based counseling would produce only small reductions in total costs. Providing counseling and testing to the study population averaged $8034 per mutation found. The cost of testing and counseling exceeded $2000. The counseling portion of the cost comprised only 16% of the total cost, with the remainder representing costs associated with testing; thus, alternatives to full genetic counseling that shorten counseling time are unlikely to have a large impact on the overall cost of counseling and testing. The cost of detecting a mutation within a population of women is highly dependent on the prevalence of the mutation in the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- W F Lawrence
- Cancer Clinical and Economic Outcomes Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, DC. 20007, USA.
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Tercyak KP, Lerman C, Peshkin BN, Hughes C, Main D, Isaacs C, Schwartz MD. Effects of coping style and BRCA1 and BRCA2 test results on anxiety among women participating in genetic counseling and testing for breast and ovarian cancer risk. Health Psychol 2001; 20:217-22. [PMID: 11403219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
Using the monitoring process model (MPM), the authors examined the immediate effects of coping style and test results on the psychological distress of women at increased risk for breast and/or ovarian cancers. Cases selected for analysis were 107 probands and relatives of positive probands participating in genetic counseling and testing for heritable cancer risk. Specifically, the authors explored the relationships among coping style (high and low monitoring), test results (BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carrier and noncarrier status), and psychological distress (state anxiety). Consistent with the MPM, higher monitoring was associated with greater psychological distress while anticipating genetic test results. After test results were disclosed, greater distress was associated with testing positive for a mutation. The implications of the findings for breast and ovarian cancer patients are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Tercyak
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007-4104, USA.
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Abstract
Since the cloning of BRCA1 and BRCA2, genetic testing for breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility has become more widespread. However, interpretation of test results is not always straightforward. To illustrate this point, five vignettes adapted from actual cases are presented. As these cases demonstrate, in many high-risk families, a deleterious mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 is not identified in an affected proband. There are several potential explanations for such a finding, namely that an undetected mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 may exist, or there could be a mutation in a rare or undiscovered gene. In addition, the possibility that women with breast cancer represent sporadic cases within hereditary cancer families must also be considered. Finally, the occurrence of BRCA1/2 variants of uncertain significance, often missense mutations, further complicates the risk assessment. In some of these instances, extending testing to relatives can be helpful to clarify results. When hereditary breast cancer cannot be ruled out, individuals may still be at increased risk for cancer and therefore need to obtain appropriate surveillance. The process of genetic counseling is critical both before and after testing to ensure that patients understand the potential medical and psychosocial implications of testing and are aware of available options and resources. A multidisciplinary approach to service delivery, which includes clinicians in genetics and oncology, can facilitate patients' decision making and provide continued access to information and support.
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Affiliation(s)
- B N Peshkin
- Department of Oncology/Division of Cancer Control, Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA.
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Matloff ET, Shappell H, Brierley K, Bernhardt BA, McKinnon W, Peshkin BN. What would you do? Specialists' perspectives on cancer genetic testing, prophylactic surgery, and insurance discrimination. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18:2484-92. [PMID: 10856109 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2000.18.12.2484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine what cancer genetics specialists predict they would do personally if they were at 50% risk of carrying a mutation that predisposes to hereditary breast/ovarian cancer (BRCA1/BRCA2) and hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC). METHODS Questionnaire survey of the membership of the National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC) Special Interest Group (SIG) in Cancer. RESULTS Of the 296 active members of the NSGC Cancer-SIG surveyed, 163 (55%) responded. Eighty-five percent predicted that if they had a 50% risk of carrying a BRCA1/BRCA2 mutation, they would pursue genetic testing. If they tested positive for a mutation at age 35, 25% predicted they would pursue prophylactic bilateral mastectomies and 68%, prophylactic oophorectomy. Ninety-one percent of respondents believe they would pursue genetic testing for HNPCC, and 17% would elect prophylactic colectomy; 54%, prophylactic hysterectomy; and 52%, prophylactic oophorectomy if they tested positive for a mutation. The majority (68%) would not bill their insurance companies for genetic testing because of fear of discrimination, and 26% would use an alias when undergoing testing. Fifty-seven percent of counselors would seek professional psychologic support to help them cope with the results of testing. CONCLUSION A large percentage of cancer genetic counseling providers predicted they would opt for prophylactic surgery at a young age if they carried a BRCA or HNPCC mutation, and most would seek professional psychologic assistance when undergoing testing. More than half of respondents would not bill their insurance companies for genetic testing, largely because of fear of genetic discrimination. The vast majority of those providers most familiar with cancer genetic testing and its associated medical, psychologic, and legal implications would still pursue genetic testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Matloff
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, and Cancer Genetic Counseling Shared Resources, Yale Cancer Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8028, USA.
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Schwartz MD, Hughes C, Roth J, Main D, Peshkin BN, Isaacs C, Kavanagh C, Lerman C. Spiritual faith and genetic testing decisions among high-risk breast cancer probands. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000; 9:381-5. [PMID: 10794482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite widespread access to genetic testing for the BRCA1 and BRCA2 breast cancer susceptibility genes, little is known about rates or predictors of test use among individuals from newly ascertained high-risk families who have self-referred for genetic counseling/testing. The objective of this study was to examine rates of test use within this population. In addition, we sought to determine whether spiritual faith and psychological factors influenced testing decisions. Participants were 290 women with familial breast cancer. All were offered genetic counseling and testing for alterations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Baseline levels of spiritual faith, cancer-specific distress, perceived risk, and demographic factors were examined to identify independent predictors of whether participants received versus declined testing. The final logistic model revealed statistically significant main effects for spiritual faith [odds ratio (OR), 0.2; 95% confidence intervals (CIs), 0.1 and 0.5] and perceived ovarian cancer risk (OR, 2.4; 95% CIs, 1.3 and 4.7) and a statistically significant spiritual faith by perceived risk interaction effect. Among women who perceived themselves to be at low risk of developing breast cancer again, those with higher levels of spiritual faith were significantly less likely to be tested, compared with those with lower levels of faith (OR, 0.2; 95% CIs, 0.1 and 0.5). However, among women with high levels of perceived risk, rates of test use were high, regardless of levels of spiritual faith (OR, 1.2; 95% CIs, 0.4 and 3.0). These results highlight the role that spirituality may play in the decision-making process about genetic testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Schwartz
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- B N Peshkin
- Cancer Genetics, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007, USA
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Audrain J, Schwartz MD, Lerman C, Hughes C, Peshkin BN, Biesecker B. Psychological distress in women seeking genetic counseling for breast-ovarian cancer risk: the contributions of personality and appraisal. Ann Behav Med 1998; 19:370-7. [PMID: 9706364 DOI: 10.1007/bf02895156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was two-fold: (a) to characterize the psychological status of women with a family history of breast or ovarian cancer who self-refer for genetic counseling and BRCA1 testing; and (b) to identify specific demographic, personality, and appraisal factors that contribute to cancer-specific distress and general distress in this group of women. Participants were 256 women ages 18 and older who had at least one first-degree relative (FDR) with breast and/or ovarian cancer. Participants were recruited through breast cancer clinics and obstetrics/gynecology departments at two medical centers by responding to program information described in a brochure. The results revealed moderate distress levels in this population. The results of a hierarchical regression of general distress indicated that women with higher levels of general distress were less likely to be married, less optimistic, and had heightened breast cancer risk perceptions accompanied by feelings of low perceptions of control over the development of breast cancer (R2 = .44, p = .0001). Women with higher levels of cancer-specific distress tended to be younger and non-White and had low perceptions of control over developing breast cancer (R2 = .15, p = .0002). These findings suggest that self-referred genetic counseling participants may be psychologically vulnerable and may benefit from interventions designed to decrease distress and the perceived absence of control over developing breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Audrain
- Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007, USA
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Matloff ET, Peshkin BN, Ward BA. The impact of genetic screening on surgical decision-making in breast cancer. Surg Technol Int 1998; 7:333-40. [PMID: 12722000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
For centuries, clinicians have recognized that a segment of their patient population is at increased risk to
develop breast cancer based on their family history of the disease. Due to the absence of molecular
information, it was not uncommon for women and their surgeons to make decisions regarding management
of prophylactic surgery based solely on their family history, without specific information about the
patient's personal risk to develop the disease. It has been only within the past 7 years that linkage for the
breast cancer (BRCA) susceptibility genes has been established, and within the past 3 years that the genes
have been cloned. Although clinical testing for the BRCA genes has been available for less than 2 years, it is
already apparent that the implications for surgeons and their patients are significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Matloff
- Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, D.C
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Audrain J, Rimer B, Cella D, Garber J, Peshkin BN, Ellis J, Schildkraut J, Stefanek M, Vogel V, Lerman C. Genetic counseling and testing for breast-ovarian cancer susceptibility: what do women want? J Clin Oncol 1998; 16:133-8. [PMID: 9440734 DOI: 10.1200/jco.1998.16.1.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess preferences for the content and process of genetic counseling and testing for breast-ovarian cancer susceptibility among women at high risk for breast cancer. METHODS Ninety-eight healthy women who had a family history of breast cancer in at least two first-degree relatives participated in a structured telephone survey that evaluated preferences for type of provider and the content and process of pretest education and posttest genetic counseling. RESULTS Forty-two percent of women preferred that pretest education be delivered by a genetic counselor, while 22% preferred an oncologist. This preference was positively associated with a desire to discuss psychosocial issues during the session (P = .001). For posttest counseling, 38% of women preferred an oncologist, while 20% preferred a genetic counselor. However, women who desired supportive counseling during this session were significantly more likely to prefer a genetic counselor to an oncologist (P = .02). Fewer women wished to see a primary care physician or gynecologist for pretest education (11%) or posttest counseling (22%). With regard to the counseling process, 82% of women wished to self-refer for genetic counseling, but 63% desired advice and recommendations about whether to be tested. CONCLUSION When feasible, the optimal approach may be for oncologists to work with genetic counselors to provide pretest education and medical recommendations. Elicitation of patients' preferences may be useful to determine the level of counseling services needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Audrain
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007, USA
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