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Thaysen C, Munno K, Hermabessiere L, Rochman CM. Towards Raman Automation for Microplastics: Developing Strategies for Particle Adhesion and Filter Subsampling. Appl Spectrosc 2020; 74:976-988. [PMID: 32285682 DOI: 10.1177/0003702820922900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Automation and subsampling have been proposed as solutions to reduce the time required to quantify and characterize microplastics in samples using spectroscopy. However, there are methodological dilemmas associated with automation that are preventing its widespread implementation including ensuring particles stay adhered to the filter during filter mapping and developing an appropriate subsampling strategy to reduce the time needed for analysis. We provide a solution to the particle adherence issue by applying Skin Tac, a non-polymeric permeable adhesive that allows microplastic particles to adhere to the filter without having their Raman signal masked by the adhesive. We also explore different subsampling strategies to help inform how to take a representative subsample. Based on the particle distributions observed on filters, we determined that assuming a homogenous particle distribution is inappropriate and can lead to over- and under-estimations of extrapolated particle counts. Instead, we provide recommendations for future studies that wish to subsample to increase the throughput of samples for spectroscopic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Thaysen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Keenan Munno
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Ludovic Hermabessiere
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Chelsea M Rochman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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2
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Cowger W, Booth AM, Hamilton BM, Thaysen C, Primpke S, Munno K, Lusher AL, Dehaut A, Vaz VP, Liboiron M, Devriese LI, Hermabessiere L, Rochman C, Athey SN, Lynch JM, De Frond H, Gray A, Jones OAH, Brander S, Steele C, Moore S, Sanchez A, Nel H. Reporting Guidelines to Increase the Reproducibility and Comparability of Research on Microplastics. Appl Spectrosc 2020; 74:1066-1077. [PMID: 32394727 PMCID: PMC8216484 DOI: 10.1177/0003702820930292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The ubiquitous pollution of the environment with microplastics, a diverse suite of contaminants, is of growing concern for science and currently receives considerable public, political, and academic attention. The potential impact of microplastics in the environment has prompted a great deal of research in recent years. Many diverse methods have been developed to answer different questions about microplastic pollution, from sources, transport, and fate in the environment, and about effects on humans and wildlife. These methods are often insufficiently described, making studies neither comparable nor reproducible. The proliferation of new microplastic investigations and cross-study syntheses to answer larger scale questions are hampered. This diverse group of 23 researchers think these issues can begin to be overcome through the adoption of a set of reporting guidelines. This collaboration was created using an open science framework that we detail for future use. Here, we suggest harmonized reporting guidelines for microplastic studies in environmental and laboratory settings through all steps of a typical study, including best practices for reporting materials, quality assurance/quality control, data, field sampling, sample preparation, microplastic identification, microplastic categorization, microplastic quantification, and considerations for toxicology studies. We developed three easy to use documents, a detailed document, a checklist, and a mind map, that can be used to reference the reporting guidelines quickly. We intend that these reporting guidelines support the annotation, dissemination, interpretation, reviewing, and synthesis of microplastic research. Through open access licensing (CC BY 4.0), these documents aim to increase the validity, reproducibility, and comparability of studies in this field for the benefit of the global community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Win Cowger
- University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | | | - Bonnie M Hamilton
- 7938University of Toronto, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Clara Thaysen
- 7938University of Toronto, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sebastian Primpke
- Alfred-Wegener-Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Biologische Anstalt Helgoland, Helgoland, Germany
| | - Keenan Munno
- 7938University of Toronto, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Amy L Lusher
- 6273Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Oslo, Norway
| | - Alexandre Dehaut
- ANSES - Laboratoire de Sécurité des Aliments, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France
| | - Vitor P Vaz
- 28117Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | | | - Lisa I Devriese
- 71343Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), InnovOcean site, Ostend, Belgium
| | - Ludovic Hermabessiere
- 7938University of Toronto, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Chelsea Rochman
- 7938University of Toronto, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samantha N Athey
- 7938University of Toronto, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jennifer M Lynch
- Chemical Sciences Division, 10833National Institute of Standards and Technology, Waimanalo, USA
- Center for Marine Debris Research, 3948Hawaii Pacific University, Center for Marine Debris Research, Waimanalo, HI USA
| | - Hannah De Frond
- 7938University of Toronto, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andrew Gray
- University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Oliver A H Jones
- 5376RMIT University, Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Clare Steele
- California State University, Channel Islands, California State University, Channel Islands, Camarillo CA, USA
| | - Shelly Moore
- 268058San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, CA, USA
| | - Alterra Sanchez
- University of Maryland College Park, Civil and Environmental Engineering, MD, USA
| | - Holly Nel
- 1724University of Birmingham, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK
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Thaysen C, Sorais M, Verreault J, Diamond ML, Rochman CM. Bidirectional transfer of halogenated flame retardants between the gastrointestinal tract and ingested plastics in urban-adapted ring-billed gulls. Sci Total Environ 2020; 730:138887. [PMID: 32402960 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The hypothesis that plastics can transfer chemical pollutants to organisms after ingestion has been supported by several lab and field studies. However, models indicate that this transfer could be bidirectional and that whether chemicals move from plastics to the animal or vice versa, depends on several factors, including the relative concentrations of chemicals in both the animal and the plastics ingested. To explore this phenomenon in the field, we examined the relative concentrations of several halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) in a population of urban-dwelling ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis) and the plastics in their gastrointestinal (GI) tracts. We predicted the direction of transfer for HFRs between these birds and their ingested plastics using assumptions based on equilibrium theory. Because we were also interested in the sources of ingested plastics in this population, we investigated the relationships between time spent in different foraging habitats (determined using GPS-based telemetry) and the amounts and morphologies of plastics in their GI tracts. Results suggest that for this highly HFR-exposed population of ring-billed gulls, chemical transfer between plastics and bird is bidirectional, with a dominance of transfer from bird to ingested plastics. We also observed a relationship whereby birds that ingested no or low amounts of plastics were most closely associated with the use of residential habitats. Overall, we conclude that whether ingested plastics is a source or sink of chemicals to organisms is a complex and context-dependent phenomenon, and likely varies based on parameters such as exposure level and feeding ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Thaysen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B2, Canada; Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, 22 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1, Canada.
| | - Manon Sorais
- Centre de recherche en toxicologie de l'environnement (TOXEN), Département des sciences biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, P.O. Box 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3P8, Canada
| | - Jonathan Verreault
- Centre de recherche en toxicologie de l'environnement (TOXEN), Département des sciences biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, P.O. Box 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3P8, Canada
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, 22 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1, Canada
| | - Chelsea M Rochman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B2, Canada
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Huntington A, Corcoran PL, Jantunen L, Thaysen C, Bernstein S, Stern GA, Rochman CM. A first assessment of microplastics and other anthropogenic particles in Hudson Bay and the surrounding eastern Canadian Arctic waters of Nunavut. Facets (Ott) 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/facets-2019-0042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Microplastics are a globally ubiquitous contaminant, invading the most remote regions, including the Arctic. To date, our understanding of the distribution and sources of microplastics in the Arctic is limited but growing. This study aims to advance our understanding of microplastics in the Arctic. Surface water, zooplankton, sediment, and snow samples were collected from Hudson Bay to north Baffin Bay onboard the CCGS Amundsen from July to August 2017. Samples were examined for microplastics, which were chemically identified via Raman spectroscopy for surface water and zooplankton and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for sediment. We found that 90% of surface water and zooplankton samples, and 85% of sediment samples, contained microplastics or other anthropogenic particles. Mean anthropogenic particle concentrations, which includes microplastics, were 0.22 ± 0.23 (per litre) for surface water, 3.51 ± 4.00 (per gram) for zooplankton, and 1.94 ± 4.12 (per gram) for sediment. These concentrations were not related to the human populations upstream, suggesting that microplastic contamination in the Arctic is from long-range transport. Overall, this study highlights the presence of microplastics across the eastern Canadian Arctic, in multiple media, and offers evidence of long-range transport via ocean and atmospheric currents. Further research is needed to better understand sources, distribution, and effects to Arctic ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee Huntington
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Patricia L. Corcoran
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Liisa Jantunen
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Egbert, ON L0L 1N0, Canada
| | - Clara Thaysen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Sarah Bernstein
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Egbert, ON L0L 1N0, Canada
| | - Gary A. Stern
- Centre for Earth Observation Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Chelsea M. Rochman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
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Huntington A, Corcoran PL, Jantunen L, Thaysen C, Bernstein S, Stern GA, Rochman CM. Correction: A first assessment of microplastics and other anthropogenic particles in Hudson Bay and the surrounding eastern Canadian Arctic waters of Nunavut. Facets (Ott) 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/facets-2020-0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aimee Huntington
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Patricia L. Corcoran
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Liisa Jantunen
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Egbert, ON L0L 1N0, Canada
| | - Clara Thaysen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Sarah Bernstein
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Egbert, ON L0L 1N0, Canada
| | - Gary A. Stern
- Centre for Earth Observation Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Chelsea M. Rochman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
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Zhang X, Mell A, Li F, Thaysen C, Musselman B, Tice J, Vukovic D, Rochman C, Helm PA, Jobst KJ. Rapid fingerprinting of source and environmental microplastics using direct analysis in real time-high resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1100:107-117. [PMID: 31987130 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Microplastics are ubiquitous in the aquatic and terrestrial environment. To prevent further contamination, methods to determine their sources are needed. Techniques to quantify and characterize microplastics in the environment are still evolving for polymers and the additives and leachable substances embedded therein, which constitute the "chemical fingerprint" of an environmental microplastic. There is a critical need for analytical methods that yield such diagnostic information on environmental microplastics that enables identification of their composition and sources of pollution. This study reports on a novel approach for rapid fingerprinting of environmental microplastics and the screening of additives using Direct Analysis in Real Time (DART)-high resolution mass spectrometry. A variety of plastic samples were investigated, including virgin pre-production pellets, microbeads from personal care products, microplastics found in the aquatic environment, and synthetic fibers. The resulting mass spectra display ∼10,000 discrete peaks, corresponding to plastic additives released by thermal desorption and polymer degradation products generated by pyrolysis. These were used to characterize differences among plastic types, microplastic source materials, and environmental samples. Multivariate statistics and elemental composition analysis approaches were applied to analyze fingerprints from the mass spectra. This promising analytical approach is sensitive, (potentially) high-throughput, and can aid in the elucidation of possible sources of microplastics and perhaps eventually to the analysis of bulk environmental samples for plastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianming Zhang
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Ontario, M9P 3V6, Canada.
| | - Alicia Mell
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Ontario, M9P 3V6, Canada
| | - Frederick Li
- IonSense Inc. Saugus, Massachusetts, 01906, USA.
| | - Clara Thaysen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | | | - Joseph Tice
- IonSense Inc. Saugus, Massachusetts, 01906, USA
| | | | - Chelsea Rochman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Paul A Helm
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Ontario, M9P 3V6, Canada.
| | - Karl J Jobst
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Ontario, M9P 3V6, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X7, Canada.
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7
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Rochman CM, Brookson C, Bikker J, Djuric N, Earn A, Bucci K, Athey S, Huntington A, McIlwraith H, Munno K, De Frond H, Kolomijeca A, Erdle L, Grbic J, Bayoumi M, Borrelle SB, Wu T, Santoro S, Werbowski LM, Zhu X, Giles RK, Hamilton BM, Thaysen C, Kaura A, Klasios N, Ead L, Kim J, Sherlock C, Ho A, Hung C. Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019; 38:703-711. [PMID: 30909321 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 408] [Impact Index Per Article: 81.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea M Rochman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cole Brookson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jacqueline Bikker
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Natasha Djuric
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Arielle Earn
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kennedy Bucci
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samantha Athey
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Aimee Huntington
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hayley McIlwraith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Keenan Munno
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hannah De Frond
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anna Kolomijeca
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lisa Erdle
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jelena Grbic
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Malak Bayoumi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephanie B Borrelle
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- David H. Smith Conservation Research Program, Society for Conservation Biology, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Tina Wu
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samantha Santoro
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Larissa M Werbowski
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xia Zhu
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rachel K Giles
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bonnie M Hamilton
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Clara Thaysen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ashima Kaura
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Natasha Klasios
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lauren Ead
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joel Kim
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cassandra Sherlock
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Annissa Ho
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Charlotte Hung
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Saini A, Thaysen C, Jantunen L, McQueen RH, Diamond ML. From Clothing to Laundry Water: Investigating the Fate of Phthalates, Brominated Flame Retardants, and Organophosphate Esters. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:9289-97. [PMID: 27507188 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of phthalate esters, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) by clothing from indoor air and transfer via laundering to outdoors were investigated. Over 30 days cotton and polyester fabrics accumulated 3475 and 1950 ng/dm(2) ∑5phthalates, 65 and 78 ng/dm(2) ∑10BFRs, and 1200 and 310 ng/dm(2) ∑8OPEs, respectively. Planar surface area concentrations of OPEs and low molecular weight phthalates were significantly greater in cotton than polyester and similar for BFRs and high molecular weight phthalates. This difference was significantly and inversely correlated with KOW, suggesting greater sorption of polar compounds to polar cotton. Chemical release from cotton and polyester to laundry water was >80% of aliphatic OPEs (log KOW < 4), < 50% of OPEs with an aromatic structure, 50-100% of low molecular weight phthalates (log KOW 4-6), and < detection-35% of higher molecular weight phthalates (log KOW > 8) and BFRs (log KOW > 6). These results support the hypothesis that clothing acts an efficient conveyer of soluble semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from indoors to outdoors through accumulation from air and then release during laundering. Clothes drying could as well contribute to the release of chemicals emitted by electric dryers. The results also have implications for dermal exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandeep Saini
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough , 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario M1C 1A4 Canada
| | - Clara Thaysen
- Department of Earth Sciences, 22 Russell Street, University of Toronto , Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1 Canada
| | - Liisa Jantunen
- Department of Earth Sciences, 22 Russell Street, University of Toronto , Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1 Canada
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada , 6248 Eighth Line, Egbert, Ontario L0L 1N0 Canada
| | - Rachel H McQueen
- Department of Human Ecology, University of Alberta , Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2N1 Canada
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough , 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario M1C 1A4 Canada
- Department of Earth Sciences, 22 Russell Street, University of Toronto , Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1 Canada
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